Four Ancient Greek Mysteries Sparking Controversy To This Day

Nick Kampouris
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Four Ancient Greek Mysteries Sparking Controversy To This Day
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greece. CR: Bernard Gagnon- CC BY-SA 3.0

Ancient Greece is known across the globe for its vast contributions to the very foundations of our modern world.

Western ideals, sometimes taken for granted, such as Democratic rule and what is today recognized as basic human rights—freedom of speech and the formation of societal organizations—find their origins in ancient Greek practices.

Millennia ago, these ancient Greek concepts managed to reshape the way people viewed the world.

However, there are many mysteries concerning the ancient Greek world, including the identity of some of its most illustrious members and events which either remain unknown or are controversial.

Let’s explore four of these myriad mysteries which continue to cause controversy and disagreements over their very existence.

One of the biggest ancient Greek mysteries: Was Homer even real?

Homer_Iliad
Homer Ilustration. Public Domain

Known as the scintillatingly brilliant author of two of the most influential pieces of literature in human history, the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey,” Homer has shaped the way generation upon generation has been educated, listening to tales of courage in the tragedies of Odysseus, Agamemnon, and other Greek heroes from the past.

However, the question of whether Homer was even real remains. Numerous scientists throughout the years have raised questions about whether Homer was an actual human being who wrote these stories, or was a fictional character.

Some say that these fascinating historical tales were actually the product of teamwork.
Unless archaeological evidence emerges one day, the “Homeric Question,” as it is known, will remain one of Greece’s most notable mysteries.

The Labyrinth of the Minotaur

Labyrinth of the Minotaur
Example of the Labyrinth of the Minotaur. Public Domain

Perhaps one of the most famous and most often referred to Greek myths focuses on the story of the Minotaur, the incredibly strong and fearsome creature who was half-bull and half-human.

The Minotaur was allegedly held captive in a massive labyrinth created by King Minos on Crete.

However, up to this day, excavations at the site of the ancient Palace of Knossos have not revealed anything whatsoever to support the theory that a labyrinth had ever been constructed there.

Scientists have argued that a labyrinth could not possibly have been constructed there, since no evidence has been found as of yet for such a structure.

However, recent research at a quarry near the Cretan city of Gortyna has raised hopes that the famous Labyrinth might soon be discovered.

Until then, the scientific controversy remains, providing another mystery about the location or actual existence of the Minotaur’s labyrinth.

The destruction of the massive statue of Zeus remains a mystery

Greek Mystery Zeus Massive Statue
Zeus Statue. Credit: Public Domain

Known as the “god of the gods,” and the master of all humanity, Zeus occupied a central role in Greek religion and cosmology.

For this reason, the Greeks tended to worship him in spectacular ways in order to show admiration for his omniscience and power.

The creation of a massive statue of the god in the temple dedicated to Zeus at Olympia was constructed to worship Zeus.

Acknowledged as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, the massive statue of Zeus was an exceptional example of the Greek form of plastic arts. The statue must at some point have been destroyed; however, details pertaining to such an event are quite limited and generally vague.

Upon the abolition of the Olympic Games in 393 AD, the Temple of Zeus in Olympia began falling apart. A few years later, it was set on fire and the statue was most likely destroyed and broken into pieces.

However, certain theories suggest that the statue survived the temple’s destruction. Emperor Theodosius allegedly ordered the transfer of the statue to Constantinople in 390 AD, where he placed it in one of the city’s palaces for safekeeping.

Nonetheless, the statue had mysteriously disappeared a few years later, and while there are suggestions that the palace may have gone up in flames, the fate of the statue remains unknown.

Others believe it was possibly transferred elsewhere which would mean that it could remain intact to this day; however, this version is incredibly unlikely.

Unfortunately, there is no certainty as to what became of one of the great wonders of the ancient world.

The Parthenon is home to many ancient Greek mysteries

The Pathernon Greek Mystery
The Parthenon, Athens in 1978. CR: Steve Swayne – C.C BY 2.0

An architectural landmark that connects the ancient to the contemporary world of today, the Parthenon has been an endless source of fascination and not only for its extraordinary history but also for the manner in which it was constructed and the splendor of the religious processions once held there.

Dedicated to the goddess Athena, who was known as the protector of the city of Athens, the Parthenon continues to inspire the world with its style, perfect architectural proportions, and stunning beauty.

Massive and impressive, yet with an air of humility, the Parthenon’s interior in ancient times remains somewhat of a mystery.

The artistic content of the Parthenon walls and the murals which once decorated the interior of the temple around the great statue of Athena is a topic of debate among scientists to this day, but as these no longer exist, scholars can only hypothesize based on available evidence.

A predominant theory is that the murals could have been used for depictions of people who assisted in the Parthenon’s construction. The murals were possibly a tribute to these individuals who added their own touch to the Athens skyline.

Nonetheless, until further solid evidence becomes available, the interior of the Parthenon, as is the case with so many other aspects of the ancient world, will remain a mystery.

Greek General Given Guard of Honour on Trip to India

Matthew Norman
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Greek General Given Guard of Honour on Trip to India
Greek General Dimitrios Choupis, Chief of the Hellenic National Defence General Staff today met with various Navy officials in India.
Greek General Dimitrios Choupis, Chief of the Hellenic National Defence General Staff, met with various navy officials in India today. Credit: Embassy of Greece in India.

Greek General Dimitrios Choupis, Chief of the Hellenic National Defence General Staff, met with various navy officials in India today. The two nations signed the Landmark Military Cooperation Programme 224 Agreement, and the general received the Guard of Honour at South Block Lawns in Delhi.

Greek General Dimitrios Choupis’s visit to India

General Choupis met Admiral Radhakrishnan Hari Kumar, Chief of the Naval Staff of India, to discuss measures to further enhance navy-to-navy cooperation and collaborative efforts towards ensuring peace, stability, and maritime security.

Additionally, the Greek general held talks with General Anil Chauhan, Chief of Defence Staff for the Indian Navy. During their meeting, they touched on the advancement of bilateral cooperation in areas of mutual interest, joint training, information sharing, and the increasing of defense collaboration, including production.

While in India, General Choupis was greeted by Greece’s Ambassador to India Aliki Koutsomitopoulou, who was “delighted to welcome the chief,” as reported by the official account of the Embassy of Greece in India. The military man also laid a wreath at the National War Memorial in Delhi and paid respects to fallen soldiers.

In February, Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis arrived in Delhi for a two-day state visit to India. He was accompanied by his wife, Mareva Grabowski-Mitsotakis. Mitsotakis held a meeting with Prime Minister Narendra Modi and agreed to boost cooperation between the two nations in the shipping, connectivity, and defense sectors.

Modi posted on X at the time:

“Had a productive meeting with PM Mitsotakis earlier today. Our talks covered key areas like technology, pharmaceuticals, skill development, space and innovation. We also agreed to boost cooperation in areas like shipping, connectivity and defence.”

During his visit to the country, Mitsotakis also met External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar. Notably, this was the first bilateral head of state or head of government-level visit from Greece to India within the last fifteen years. Before that, the last prime ministerial visit from Greece to India was in 2008.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Athens in August last year, and relations between India and Greece were elevated to a strategic partnership during his visit, according to the Ministry of External Affairs.

While in India, in a speech in Mumbai, Mitsotakis highlighted investment opportunities now offered by Greece to India. In addressing the Greek-Indian business forum held on the last day of his two-day visit to India, Mitsotakis assured Indian businesspersons and entrepreneurs that “the Greece they remember, the Greece of the financial crisis, the Greece that made the headlines for all the wrong reasons, no longer exists.”

The Unique Eccentricities of the Modern Greek Language

Nick Kampouris
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The Unique Eccentricities of the Modern Greek Language
A Man Sitting at the Table Reading a Book
Learning Greek is not always easy, but it is truly fascinating. Credit: RDNE Stock project, Pexels, Public Domain

The Greek language hosts an incredibly diverse and rich linguistic history, with its roots stretching back thousands of years.

As one of the world’s oldest languages still spoken, Greek has evolved over the centuries quite significantly. However, Modern Greek grammar retains a striking number of similarities with ancient features while also developing its own unique characteristics.

By exploring these grammatical and linguistic quirks, we can gain a deeper, more comprehensive understanding of the Greek language as a whole and the culture it represents. We can also see why ancient Greek and Modern Greek are not considered two different languages but one and the same, albeit with different stages.

Greek is a highly inflected language

One of the most striking features of Modern Greek grammar is its highly inflected nature, something that makes it truly difficult to learn and understand if you’re not a native speaker.

Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns all inflect for case, number, and gender. This richness of variability allows for a great deal of linguistic precision but also becomes a real hurdle for those who try to learn the language. However, Modern Greek is actually simpler in this field compared to the ancient version of the language.

In Modern Greek, there are four cases: nominative, genitive, accusative, and vocative. These cases indicate the grammatical function of a word in a sentence, such as whether it is the subject, object, or possessor. The lack of such functionalities in the English language makes it really tricky for English native speakers to comprehend and appreciate the richness of this perk of Greek and other languages, such as German. Most Indo-European languages lie towards the inflected end on a linguistic continuum from highly inflected to highly isolating. Latin, as well as Greek, have been primary examples of highly inflected languages.

This is the reason why the modern Romance languages that descended from Latin, including Spanish, French, and Italian among others, may have lost many of the noun declensions of Latin but still retain some inflection in contrast to English.

The old English language had much more noun inflection compared to modern English, which has largely lost all grammatical gender and case for nouns, with the exception of inflecting most nouns to show the plural form (namely the addition of an -s at the end).

Furthermore, the Greek language has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Archaic features of the Greek language, such as noun declensions, are still largely used in Modern Greek, preserving the ancient roots of the language and showcasing the continuation of its existence.

Verbs also undergo quite complex inflections in Greek, conjugating for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and voice, and making it even harder for an aspiring Greek speaker to remember everything correctly.

Library books in shelves
The Greek language lost its use of infinitives early on following a similar trend with other neighboring languages. Credit: Terry Kearny, Flickr, Public Domain

The loss of the infinitive in the Modern Greek language

One of the most notable differences between modern and ancient Greek that is almost instantly clear to someone who is learning both ancient and Modern Greek is the loss of the infinitive form.

In ancient Greek, the infinitive was a crucial part of the verbal system, used almost in every possible way. However, in Modern Greek, it has been replaced completely by subjunctive constructions using particles like “na.”

For example, instead of saying ” paein” (‘I want to go”), a Modern Greek speaker would say “thelo na pao” (“I want that I go”).

This linguistic shift is not unique to Greek, however. It is a shared feature among several languages of Southeastern Europe, showcasing the regional influences on language development and how interconnected languages and peoples are throughout history.

The unique Greek verb system

The Modern Greek verb system is a complex and fascinating aspect of the language, too. Greek verbs follow a two-stem system, with the imperfective stem used for continuous or repeated actions and the perfective stem for completed actions that have already taken place.

The perfective stem is used to form past tenses as well as subjunctives, while the imperfective stem is used for present and future tenses, for actions that are happening now or will happen at some point later in time.

On top of that, the auxiliary verb “eho” (to have) is used to form perfect tenses, which indicate completed actions with continuing relevance. This is very similar to other languages, like English and French, among others. In English for example, the verb “to have” and in French, the verb “avoir” are used in very similar ways to form sentences that describe completed actions with a continuous nature within them.

Greek participles, on the other hand, are verbal adjectives. They act like regular adjectives and inflect for case, number, and gender. This allows the Greek language to obtain a great deal of linguistic flexibility and precision when it comes to speech.

Another notable feature of the Greek verb system is the prevalence of the passive voice, which has its own, unique conjugation patterns and is used more frequently than in many other languages.

Flexible word order

Thanks to its unique and very rich inflectional system, Modern Greek allows its speakers to have a significantly loose word order, something that makes absolutely no sense in a language such as English.

While the standard word order in Greek is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), other arrangements are possible and perfectly understandable. These are primarily used for emphasis or stylistic effect. For example, in English (as well as in Greek) we would say “The child plays the piano.” In English a sentence like “To piano paizei to paidi” (“The piano plays the boy”) would make no sense. In Greek, however, it makes perfect sense and gives the impression that the speaker wants to emphasize the object that the boy plays with rather than a complete swap between subject and object.

This syntactical eccentricity can also take place in the form of placing the verb first, followed by the object, and finishing with the subject. In our example, we would say in Greek “Paizei to piano to paidi,”  which would translate as “Plays the boy the piano.”

In this particular case, the speaker puts his or her emphasis on the fact that the subject (the boy) is capable enough to play the piano, thus conveying an underlying message that maybe the boy was not capable enough earlier to do so.

Greek also makes use of clitics, which are weak pronouns that attach to verbs, allowing object pronouns to precede the verb. An example of this would be: “To eida to autokinito” (It I-saw the car), with the object pronoun “to” (“it”) appearing before the verb “eida” (“I saw”).

The Modern Greek language is truly complex but beautiful

By simply showing a few examples of Modern Greek grammar, we can easily understand that it is a fascinating amalgamation and a blend of ancient features, cultural effects, and modern innovations.

Its truly complex inflectional system preserves many ancient elements, while its unique verb system and the loss of the infinitive demonstrate the evolution of the language over time.

The flexibility of Greek syntax allows its speakers to demonstrate creative and poetic expressions, making it a language well-suited for literature and the arts.

Are you now ready to learn Greek?

Related: Greek Language Day: Honoring The Mother of Western Languages

 

82 Percent of Employers in Greece Report Skills Shortage

Matthew Norman
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82 Percent of Employers in Greece Report Skills Shortage
82 percent of employer respondents in Greece have detailed in a new survey that there is a skills shortage in the country.
82 percent of employer respondents in Greece have detailed in a new survey that there is a skills shortage in the country. Credit: wistechcolleges. CC BY 2.0/flickr

The demand for skilled workers in 21 European countries is not being met, with 75 percent of employers unable to find workers equipped for their roles in 2023, and Greece reporting the higher end of 82 percent.

A shortage of skill in the labor force is becoming a serious challenge for employers across Europe, as conveyed in a number of different surveys. In 2023, 54 percent of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the EU reported that difficulties in finding employees with the desired skills were one of their most serious concerns, according to Eurostat.

Global workforce solutions company ManpowerGroup also reported that three in four employers in 21 European countries could not find the skills they were looking for – this was 42 percent in 2018, meaning a 79 percent rise in the last five years.

The survey, published in October 2023, showed that talent shortage is a monumental global problem. “Figures in our annual talent shortage survey increased dramatically, as the need for skilled workers is becoming more and more acute,” Mara Stefan, VP of Global Insights at ManpowerGroup told Euronews Business.

Where does Greece Stand in this Latest Survey?

Within the survey results, on average, across 21 European countries, 75 percent of employers said they had difficulty filling various job roles, ranging from 59 percent in Finland to 82 percent in Germany and Greece, with Greece having reported a 61 percent skills shortage in 2018, an increase of 21 percentage points.

“In Europe, we see falling unemployment, meaning there are not enough skilled workers to fill existing or new jobs. To exacerbate this, Europe has an ageing population, with a global decline in birth rates further contributing to the skills and talent gaps we see today”, Stefan underlined.

“This partly explains why Germany’s talent figure shortages are steeper than Finland’s. In 2023, Germany’s unemployment rate was 3 percent, whilst Finland’s was at 7 percent, resulting in a smaller pool for finding skilled labour,” she added.

‘Technicians’ Skills are needed the most

Technician roles exist in one-third of SMEs, but, the organizations typically find a shortage of technically trained staff, such as lab workers and mechanics. Almost half (42 percent) of European SMEs reported facing a dearth of technicians. Which is, by far, the most frequently-identified job role with skills shortages.

For SMEs who employ and rely on customer care experts, around 23 percent of respondents reported there was a skills shortage for these positions. This job category encompasses sales professionals, client advisors, receptionists and other people-facing employees.

Reasons behind the Skills shortages in Greece and Beyond

On average, 56 percent of employers in the EU responded detailing that there were few or no applicants when asked about the main reasons for their skill shortages, according to the Eurobarometer survey.

This was the primary factor, ranging from 18 percent in Sweden to 73 percent in Belgium. All Nordic countries reported fewer figures than the EU average in identifying a lack of applicants, while Norway and Denmark were not far off the average.

The main reasons given by employers included that applicants did not have the desired qualifications, skills or experience, closely followed by the lack of applicants at 54 percent. In the EU it varied from 41 percent in France to 70 percent in Estonia, with 64 percent of the respondents in Greece stating that not enough people with the correct skills were applying for jobs.

The EU Commission has underlined that labour and skills shortages have been increasing in all member states for almost a decade. These shortages are mainly driven by demographic shifts, the demand for new skills linked to technological developments and challenges related to working conditions.

“Across the board, the tight labour market in 2023 means many face challenges finding people with the needed soft and technical skills. Investment in upskilling, reskilling, and a focus on preparing people for tomorrow’s jobs has become–and will remain–more important and should be at the top of every business leader’s agenda,” Stefan told Euronews Business.

Millions Gather in US, Mexico, and Canada for Total Solar Eclipse

Matthew Norman
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Millions Gather in US, Mexico, and Canada for Total Solar Eclipse
Millions have gathered across the US, Canada and Mexico to watch the total solar eclipse.
Millions have gathered across the US, Canada, and Mexico to watch the total solar eclipse. Credit: NASA Goddard Photo and Video. CC BY 2.0/flickr

Millions of people have been gathering across 15 American states, as well as in Mexico and Canada today (Monday, April 8) waiting for this afternoon’s total solar eclipse which is expected to bring a magnificent show.

The Total Solar Eclipse in the US

Faced with a gray day of cloud and rain – somewhat hindering their view – huge crowds came together in the US from Texas to Maine, holding safety glasses and cameras with solar filters, in preparation for the great event.

More than 31 million people live in the path of totality – the course of the moon’s shadow blocking the sun – which the eclipse will trace in a north-east direction for around an hour after passing into Texas at 1.30pm CT.

Officials have said they expect a further four to five million people to join the gatherings, bringing an estimated $1.5bn tourism boost from what will be the country’s biggest travel day of the year.

There’s another 21 years between the US and another coast-to-coast total eclipse, no doubt adding to the general excitement of the event and the keenness to witness the moments of darkness and stillness. For many, however, the experience is expensive, with increasing airfares and astronomical hotel rates.

What’s Happening Today?

Nasa will livestream the eclipse for people who cannot see the show, or live outside the path of totality. Nearly everywhere in North America will experience a partial eclipse of varying degrees depending on the proximity to its center course. Meanwhile, the space agency has its Eclipse Explorer website for people to check what they will see from their location.

Interest in the eclipse is so widespread that several states and municipalities have declared states of emergency in expectation of enormous crowds.

Many cities in the path are hosting public viewing events and offering eclipse safety glasses for free. At a handful of zoos, researchers will be joining citizen observers to see how animals behave.

Science experiments will also be carried out. Nasa will fire rockets into the moon’s shadow to study how the Earth’s upper atmosphere is affected by the momentary dimming of sunlight, and volunteers will capture images of the solar corona during the total eclipse, or help analyze them following it to better understand its effects and mysteries.

A partial eclipse will also be visible from western parts of the UK just before sunset – weather permitting.

“Very simply, if you draw a line from about Fowey in Cornwall to Berwick upon Tweed in Northumberland, then everything west of that line might just get a view of the Moon biting the edge of the Sun as it disappears over the horizon,” reports the BBC.

What is a Solar Eclipse and what makes this one special?

A solar eclipse takes place when the Moon moves between the Earth and the Sun, blocking some or all of the Sun’s rays from reaching the Earth. The event requires the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth to be in exactly the right alignment for the Moon to cast a shadow on our planet.

When this occurs, the Moon casts two types of shadows. One results in a partial solar eclipse, which covers only part of the Sun, and the other is called a total solar eclipse, during which the Sun’s disc is entirely covered by the Moon, except for a soft halo of scattered light coming from the gas giant’s outer atmosphere.

Ancient Gold Coins Depicting Alexander the Great Found in Greece

Matthew Norman
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Ancient Gold Coins Depicting Alexander the Great Found in Greece
Excavation in Katre Street, no. 1. The treasure of 37 coins. The silver coins are in the cleaning stage.
New archaeological discoveries on Crete have revealed 37 rare coins, including 11 gold staters with Alexander the Great depicted on them. Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania

Recent archaeological discoveries on Kastelli Hill in the Old Town of the city of Chania, Crete, have brought to light a unique monetary collection of 37 rare coins, including 11 gold staters with different versions of Alexander the Great depicted on them.

During an ongoing excavation in Chania, Crete, archaeologists uncovered high-value coins, depicting Alexander the Great at different stages of his life, and mainly posthumous mints either in the name of Philip III Arridaeus, Seleucus I Nicator or Lysimachus of Thrace, the mints of Macedonia (Amphipolis), Asia (Abydos, Lampsakou, Sardeon, Arado).

Excavation in Katre Street, no. 1. The 11 golden staters, after cleaning them.
Excavation in Katre Street, no. 1. The 11 golden staters, after cleaning them. Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania

Gold stater and silver coins depicting Alexander the Great

It is claimed that one gold stater corresponded to the monthly pay of a mercenary.
The silver coins are 15 Elidos staters, which were minted in Olympia during the Olympic Games of the 4th century BC, two drachms of Cyrene, one Corinthian stater of the Palace of Acarnania, as well as domestic Cretan coins.

The silver two-drachms of Cyrene.
The silver two-drachms of Cyrene. Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania

There was also one stater of Praisos, two drachms of Phaistos, one drachm of Hyrtakina, two pseudo-Aeginite hemidrachms of Kydonia and two early versions of Aegina with an embossment of the sea and land turtle.

The date of concealment is thought to be around 300 to 280 BC, with the two coins of Kydonia suggesting the tucking away of significant sums, likely by mercenaries, in the space behind the wall of the acropolis of Kydonia.

Excavations of the Minoan settlement of Kasteli Hill, Chania, Crete.
Excavations of the Minoan settlement of Kasteli Hill, Chania, Crete. Credit: Zde. CC BY 4.0/Wikimedia Commons/Zde

Excavations at Kastelli Hill in Chania have been under the direction of Dr Maria Andreadaki-Vlazakis, and with support from the Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania.

The excavation work that has been taking place in Katre Street, Chania, uncovered a few years ago the large – mostly damaged apart from intact column bases – hypostyle room-hall of the 14th century BC is in progress. The area forms part of the palace complex of Kydonia, from the Creto-Minoan period, which was destroyed by an earthquake midway through the 13th century BC.

Old Town of Chania. Kastelli Hill. Plots under excavation are marked in green. The excavation Katre 1 is the no. 2 and the Lionaki-Vlamaki excavation no. 1.
Old Town of Chania. Kastelli Hill. Plots under excavation are marked in green. The excavation Katre 1 is the no. 2 and the Lionaki-Vlamaki excavation no. 1. Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania

Minoan human sacrifice of a girl after big earthquake

The earthquake was followed by the sacrifice of a girl along with 43 goats, a number of sheep, four pigs and two oxen, which is believed to be a unique find of great importance for archaeology, because it presents the first undisputed evidence of human sacrifice in the Minoan period.

It is understood that in the years following the destruction of the hypostyle hall, the area was converted to an outdoor space, where in the Geometric period (8th century BC) large accumulations of broken pithos and sizeable vessels accrued – part of which was discovered in this latest excavation.

Excavation in Katre Street, no.1. Part of the large hypostyle space with the gravel-lime floor, from the southeast (14th-13th centuries BC), Chania, Crete.
Excavation in Katre Street, no.1. Part of the large hypostyle space with the gravel-lime floor, from the southeast (14th-13th centuries BC), Chania, Crete. Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania

The successive layers of earthen floors from the 8th century BC to the beginning of the 6th century have brought forth a lot of ceramic discoveries, which have been useful for the study of the evolution of pottery in the aforementioned time periods in the city of Kydonia. An opportunity that had not presented itself amid previous excavations in Chania.

A wall – built in the early Archaic years, in the second half of the 7th century – marks the eastern boundary of the extensive outdoor area, and is believed to have been destroyed by another earthquake at the beginning of the 6th century.

Excavations of the Minoan settlement of Kasteli, Chania, Crete
Excavations of the Minoan settlement of Kasteli, Chania, Crete. Credit: by Zde. CC BY 4.0/Wikimedia Commons/Zde

Deposits found in the recent excavation include black bowls, animal bones and many anklets, clay potsherds, pessaries, slings, sparks and a number of other objects. An osteological study showed that the animals carcasses were cut into small pieces for the preparation and cooking of a large feast.

The small concentration of bones, mainly sheep and goats, remains of a meal.
The small concentration of bones, mainly sheep and goats, remains of a meal. Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania

Archaeologists and researchers working on the site over the years believe that all the findings, along with the location on the hill, point to the conclusion that a public building, likely a manor or a sanctuary, was constructed in the outdoor area in the early Archaic years.

Previous Discoveries at Kastelli Hill in Chania, Crete

There have been previous monetary discoveries in Chania’s Kastelli Hill, where in 2022 a hoard of 33 silver coins, and coins from 13 Cretan cities and Larissa, were discovered.

 

In March last year, Greek authorities were finalizing the candidacy file for the inclusion of Crete’s Minoan-era palaces in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The file was submitted by the Ministry of Culture in September and included the palaces of Zakros, Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zominthos and Kydonia.

The palaces currently sit on the ‘tentative list’ of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, with a decision expected imminently.

English Words With Origins in Ancient Greek Mythology

Matthew Norman
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English Words With Origins in Ancient Greek Mythology
The English language is full of words with origins in Greek mythology.
The English language is full of words with origins in Greek mythology. Credit: jovike. CC BY 2.0/flickr

The English language is the most extensive language in the world, providing its users with more than 170,000 potentially employable words, but, like other languages, it has been infused with antique terms, many of them derived from ancient Greek mythology.

From ‘atlas’ to ‘zephyr’, many words that now form part of the English lexicon have their origins in ancient Greek mythology, with gods, heroes, and tyrants unknowingly passing on their names through the centuries to be soaked up into everyday English vocabulary.

It is important to note that, since the living Greek and English languages were not in direct contact until modern times, borrowings were necessarily indirect, coming either through Latin (texts or French or other vernaculars), or from ancient Greek texts – so, here are a few of the most interesting examples.

English Words with Origins in Greek Mythology

Atlas is perhaps one of the best-known figures of ancient Greek mythology: the Titan whose punishment – for leading the Titan rebellion against Zeus in the Titanomachy – was to stand at the western edge of the Earth and hold the heavens on his shoulders for eternity.

But the use of the word ‘atlas’ in a geographical context is dated to roughly 1595, when the German-Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator published ‘Atlas or Cosmographical meditations upon the creation of the universe and the universe as created’. This lengthy title encompasses Mercator’s definition of the word as a description of the creation and form of the whole universe, not solely as a collection of maps.

The volume which was released one year after his death is a text with broad scope but, as the editions evolved, it regressed into simply a collection of maps, and it is with this meaning that the term was used from the middle of the 17th century.

The new word coined by Mercator was a token of his respect for the Titan Atlas, whom he considered to be the first great geographer.

Even such everyday words as ‘charity’ have their germ in ancient Greek mythology. Through a convoluted route, the word as it is now used in English, likely has its roots in the mythological tale of the Charities, or singular, Charis. The latter is a Greek word meaning ‘grace’, and is employed in the New Testament of the Bible.

In ancient Greek mythology, the Charities were three or more goddesses of charm, beauty, nature, creativity, goodwill, and fertility. Their number varied greatly depending on who was referring to them. In Hesiod’s Theogony, the Charities are listed as Aglaea, Euphrosyne, and Thalia, but alternate names to those given by Hesiod include Damia, Auxesia, Cleta, Hegemone, Peitho, Kale and many more.

Such salacious words as ‘erotic’ also find their origins in ancient Greek mythology, with the god of love Eros bearing the fruit that would eventually ripen into the fairly commonly-used English word. In fact, the ancient Greeks categorized love into four components: erao, to be in love with, to desire passionately or sexually, phileo, to have affection for, agapao, to have regard for, and stergo, which was used to describe the love of parents and their children or a ruler and his, or her subjects.

A statue of Eros, the ancient Greek god of love.
A statue of Eros, the ancient Greek god of love. Credit: lizsmith. CC BY 2.0/flickr

Even the world’s second-smallest continent, Europe, is believed to be derived from the name of a princess in ancient Greek mythology: Europa. However, it may also come from combining the Greek roots eur- (wide) and -op (seeing) to form the phrase ‘wide-gazing’.

In ancient Greek mythology, Europa was a Phoenician princess from Tyre, modern-day Lebanon, and the mother of King Minos of Crete. The story of her abduction by Zeus in the form of a bull was a Cretan tale, being that most of the love stories involving Zeus originated from more ancient tales describing his marriages with goddesses.

The earliest literary reference to Europa can be found in Homer’s Iliad, which is commonly dated to the 8th century BC. Another early reference to her is in a fragment of the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women, discovered at Oxyrhynchus, and the earliest vase painting identifiable as Europa dates from the mid-seventh century BC.

The myth of the ancient Greek god Hermaphroditus is the root word for another term employed in modern-day English: hermaphrodite. Hermaphroditus was the son of Aphrodite and Hermes, and, according to Ovid, a nymph named Salmacis fell in love with Hermaphroditus and prayed that she could be united with him. Her prayers were answered, and her body fused with his, resulting in one individual possessing physical traits of both male and female sexes.

The word hermaphrodite in modern English has kept the core of the Greek myth in its meaning: a person or animal that exhibits physical characteristics of both genders. The word entered the English lexicon as early as the late 14th century, and though it is not entirely known, it seems to have come via Latin, in John Trevisa’s 1398 translation of Bartholomaeus Anglicus’ De Proprietatibus rerum (On the properties of things).

An even rarer word in modern-day English, ‘lycanthrope’, which describes someone who is half man, half wolf (werewolf), comes from the ancient Greek myth of Lycaon, a king of Arcadia who killed and cooked his son Nyctimus and served him to Zeus, to see whether the leader of the gods was sufficiently all-knowing to recognize human flesh. Disgusted, Zeus transformed Lycaon into a wolf and killed his offspring; Nyctimus was then brought back to life.

Lycaon, having been cursed by Zeus to become half man half wolf.
Lycaon, having been cursed by Zeus to become half man half wolf. Credit: Bibliothèque Méjanes. CC BY 2.0/flickr

Music, a word that denotes one of the most beautiful mediums of art ever created, comes directly from the Muses; the inspirational Greek goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They were considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the poetry, lyric songs, and myths that were related orally for centuries in ancient Greek culture.

The number and names of the Muses differed by region, but from the Classical period the number of Muses was standardized to nine, and their names were generally given as Calliope, Clio, Polyhymnia, Euterpe, Terpsichore, Erato, Melpomene, Thalia, and Urania.

A now-waning phrase in the English language – ‘memory is the mother of the Muses’ – is also a throwback to ancient Greek mythology. The mother of the Muses was a Titaness named Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. Her name is where we get the modern-day word ‘mnemonic’ from, which is a tool to help with memorization. The word ‘muse’ too, meaning a literal person or supernatural force that serves as someone’s source of artistic inspiration, is derived from the Muses of ancient Greek mythology.

The large bodies of saltwater surrounding the land masses of our planet may be so-named because of Oceanus, the Titan son of Uranus and Gaia in ancient Greek mythology.

Oceanus was the husband of his sister, the Titan Tethys, and the father of the river gods and the Oceanids, as well as being the great river that encircled the entire world.

Another ancient Greek tale involving a father trying to feed his son to Zeus has given rise to the word ‘tantalize’, meaning to arrest someone with irresistible temptation which will never be fulfilled.

Tantalus was a figure in ancient Greek mythology, most famous for his punishment in Tartarus – for trying to trick the gods into eating his son, he was made to stand in a pool of water beneath a fruit tree with low branches, with the fruit ever eluding his grasp, and the water always receding before he could take a drink. This is where the word tantalize originates from.

It would make sense that some of the elements were given anthropomorphic properties and turned into gods in ancient times, being that the explanations we have today for natural phenomena like thunderstorms, lightning, rain, earthquakes, and tides, had not been brought into the realm of science and human understanding back then.

Henrietta Rae (1859-1928), Zephyrus wooing Flora.
Henrietta Rae (1859-1928), Zephyrus wooing Flora. Credit: sofi01. CC BY 2.0/flickr

In modern-day English, a ‘zephyr’ is a gentle west wind (made famous by the Red Hot Chilli Peppers), but this weather pattern in ancient Greece was assigned to Zephyrus, the god and personification of the west wind.

There are many, many more words in the English language that find their origins in the lexicon of ancient Greek mythology, most of which hold a meaning that is exemplified in the myth itself, such as with the case of Hermaphroditus.

Thucydides: The Ancient Greek Father of Scientific History

Philip Chrysopoulos
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Thucydides: The Ancient Greek Father of Scientific History
Thucydides
Bust of Thucydides, son of Olorus, in the Capitoline Museum. Credit: Alinari Wikimedia Commons CC0

No other ancient historian the likes of Thucydides has ever written a book as insightful on the mechanisms and morals of war as History of the Peloponnesian War.

The history of the armed conflict between ancient Greece’s most emblematic city-states, Athens and Sparta, as well as their allies, the Delian League and the Peloponnesian League, respectively, in the words of Thucydides is an invaluable text. Today, it is taught not only in history classes but also in political science, international relations, and philosophy university courses.

The Spartans, watching Athens achieving dominance in the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean due to their intrepid naval force, declared a preemptive war to thwart their rising power.

Thucydides was an Athenian. Therefore, one would assume that his account of the Peloponnesian War was biased. That was not the case, however. Instead, he was impartial and his writing as factual as possible. For that reason, he was described by some as the “father of scientific history.”

In his only book, he goes beyond the actual war. He delves into the causes from both perspectives, dissects their motivations, questions the politics on both sides, and judges the leaders as fairly and impartially as possible.

The Peloponnesian War started in 431 BC and ended in 404 BC with the Spartans’ victory and the demise of Athens’ mighty naval force. Consequently, it marked the end of its hegemony in the Eastern Mediterranean. More so, it signified the end of the Golden Age of Athens.

However, the book of the great ancient Greek historian ends abruptly in 411 BC even though he was alive when the war ended and it appears he knew of the events that took place after 400 BC. There is, however, a continuation of History of the Peloponnesian War by Xenophon called Hellenica.

A life of experience

Little is known of the life of Thucydides. Most information about his life comes from his own writings in the History of the Peloponnesian War. He was an Athenian living in the seaside neighborhood of Alimos.

It is believed he was born around 460 BC and possibly died just after 400 BC. His father was Olorus. Olorus was not considered an Athenian name but was likely one of Thracian descent. Thucydides was related to the Athenian Miltiades, a great statesman and general. He also owned gold mines in Scapte Hyle, a Thracian seaside area across from Thasos island.

Thucydides survived the 430 to 429 BC pestilence that took the life of Pericles and thousands of Athenians. In 424 BC, he was elected strategos (general) and stationed to lead the Thasos island fleet. He fought against the Spartan alliance, the Peloponnesian League, that was led by General Brasidas.

When the Peloponnesians attacked and took over Amphipolis, Thucydides was deemed by Athenians as failing to defend the city, so they brought him back to Athens to put him on trial. He was sentenced to a 20-year exile. His war experience prompted him to write about the Peloponnesian War. His exile gave him the opportunity to travel to the Peloponnese and move there freely so that he could also assess the conflict from the Peloponnesian League’s point of view.

As an Athenian, Thucydides knew very well the reasons his compatriots went to war against the Spartans. Being an exile in the Peloponnese, he gained invaluable insight into the reasons that led the Spartans and their allies to go to war with Athens.

At the time, Athens had a democratic political system and a fearsome naval force. Sparta,  on the other hand, was most powerful as a land force, with a tradition of an austere militaristic monarchy.

The first ten years of the conflict passed with the Spartans attacking by land and Athenians raiding by sea. After Thucydides lost Amphipolis to Brasidas’ army, Athenian General Cleon unsuccessfully tried to recapture it in 422 BC. Both generals were killed in battle, forcing the two sides to negotiate a treaty.

A truce that lasted six years ended when Athens launched an expedition against Syracuse, which was an ally of Sparta in Sicily. With the help of the Spartans, the Sicilians drove out the Athenians in 413 BC, destroying the largest part of their fleet.

Thucydides did not finish History of the Peloponnesian Wars. For unknown reasons, the final chapter ends abruptly in 411 BC. This is seven years before the end of the war. Nevertheless, 2,500 years later, the book remains a must-read for the academic disciplines mentioned above.

Thucydides, Herodotus, and Homer today

Thucydides was the third ancient Greek who wrote extensively about a war. Roughly fifty years before him, Herodotus wrote The Persian Wars. Three centuries prior to him, Homer wrote the Iliad, a story of the Trojan War. Both were influential works with invaluable insight into ancient Greek and world history of the time. Nonetheless, neither of those was a history book.

Homer’s Iliad was an epic story full of great heroes and capricious gods. It was the starting point of Western literature, but a history book it was certainly not. Troy was likely real, and there is a possibility it was attacked by Achaeans sometime before the Greek Dark Ages. However, there is no mention in history that Achilles, Paris, Helen, or any of the protagonists of the epic poem were real persons, as most of the protagonists are fictional characters and gods.

Herodotus’ account of the war between the ancient Greeks and the invading Persians was a history book for its time. While it provides priceless information on the two armies at war and their battles as observed by the author, who lived during that time period, most historians find it to be exaggerated and occasionally inaccurate. It is also believed the protagonists of both sides are blown out of proportion.

This is not so with Thucydides and his History of the Peloponnesian War. As Julia Kindt, Chair of the Department of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Sydney, wrote about Thucydides’ take on the Peloponnesian War:

“As a high-ranking Athenian military commander (or “strategos”), Thucydides brought to the project firsthand experience of the war, as well as an acute understanding of the complex power politics behind events on the battlefield. His analysis of the immediate and underlying causes of the war and his insight into the considerations and motivations of those fighting it remain one of the most brilliant pieces of political history to date.

His sharp analysis of the kind of forces that stir popular sentiments and drive collective decision making still resonates in the modern world.”

The lesson emerging from that war is that, essentially, there is no real winner in such a war. The outcome of the Peloponnesian War was the weakening of two ancient Greek superpowers that eventually led to the ultimate demise of both.

The name of Thucydides and the mutually destructive Peloponnesian War appears once again in modern times in a 2017 book entitled Destined for War: Can America and China Escape Thucydides’s Trap?

Writer Graham Allison, the director of the Harvard Kennedy School’s Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, parallels the possibility of war between today’s superpowers, the United States and China, with the Peloponnesian War as analyzed by Thucydides. Allison refers to the potential catastrophic results of such conflict for both sides.

The dilemma here is whether two states can avoid catastrophic war when a rising power such as China begins to challenge the dominant state’s—in this case that of the US—control. For Thucydides, the answer is a resounding “no.” Indeed, this is a lesson taught roughly 2,500 years ago by a brilliant teacher.

Rare Dolphin With Thumbs Discovered in Greece

Abdul Moeed
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Rare Dolphin With Thumbs Discovered in Greece
Rare Dolphin With Thumbs Photographed in Greece
A rare dolphin with thumbs was photographed in Greece. Credit: Alexandros Frantzis / Pelagos Cetacean Research Institute

A rare dolphin with thumb-like flippers has been discovered in the Gulf of Corinth in Greece. Pelagos Cetacean Research Institute researchers came across this unique dolphin twice last summer while conducting boat surveys along the Greek coast.

Despite its flippers’ unusual shape, the dolphin kept up with its group, engaging in swimming, leaping, bow-riding, and playing with fellow dolphins, as reported by Alexandros Frantzis, the scientific coordinator and president of the Pelagos Cetacean Research Institute.

“It was the very first time we saw this surprising flipper morphology in 30 years of surveys in the open sea and also in studies while monitoring all the stranded dolphins along the coasts of Greece for 30 years,” shared Frantzis, who captured the images of the dolphin with thumbs, in an email to Live Science.

Around 1,300 striped dolphins in the Gulf of Corinth

The Gulf of Corinth is nestled between the Greek mainland and the Peloponnese peninsula. Within its waters, there exists a distinctive community of dolphins, including common dolphins (Delphinus delphis), Risso’s dolphins (Grampus griseus), and striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba).

The dolphin with the unique thumbs was identified as a striped dolphin, according to Frantzis.

Approximately 1,300 striped dolphins inhabit the Gulf of Corinth, forming an isolated group separate from the broader Mediterranean population. Frantzis suggests the distinctive flipper might be a result of rare and irregular genes emerging from continuous interbreeding within this specific population.

Dolphin’s unique flipper is likely tied to genetic makeup

Lisa Noelle Cooper, an associate professor specializing in mammalian anatomy and neurobiology at Northeast Ohio Medical University, agrees that the dolphin’s unique flipper is likely due to its genetic makeup.

“I’ve never seen a flipper of a cetacean that had this shape,” Cooper told Live Science in an email. “Given that the defect is in both the left and right flippers, it is probably the result of an altered genetic program that sculpts the flipper during development as a calf.”

Cetaceans, which include marine mammals such as whales, dolphins, and porpoises, have developed unique front limbs featuring more phalanges or finger bones compared to other mammals.

Bruna Farina, a doctoral student focusing on paleobiology and macroevolution at the University of Fribourg in Switzerland, said that these bones form hand-like structures encased in a soft-tissue flipper, resembling a human hand.

Dolphins have thumbs, even though they are not as noticeable as humans and are hidden by their flippers, as explained by Farina in an email to Live Science.

The End of Humanity According to Ancient Greek Mythology

Anna Wichmann
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The End of Humanity According to Ancient Greek Mythology
end of the world
The End of the Humanity According to Ancient Greek Mythology. Credit: Stefans02 / Flickr / CC BY-2.0

According to ancient Greek mythology, there are five ages known as “The Ages of Man,” during which time humanity reaches its peak and then comes to an end.

Hesiod, the Ancient Greek poet, is the most important source for information regarding the Ages of Man.

In his poem entitled “Works and Days,” the poet, who is considered one of the most important early ancient Greek authors along with Homer, outlines the five periods of human history.

“Works and Days” was written around 700 BC and functions as both lessons on life as a farmer and agriculture, and as a mythological source for both the story of Prometheus and Pandora and the Myth of the Five Ages of Man.

The poem is now considered an important source of information regarding the agrarian lifestyle of Greeks at the time, as well as some moral values held by the society, as Hesiod offers advice about living a good life in the work.

Hesiod outlines the five ages of humankind. The five periods—The Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic, and Iron Ages—describe the progression of humankind through the lens of Greek mythology.

All ages, apart from one, are named after metals. The metals decrease in value as time progresses, but they increase in hardness and durability.

The Five Ages of Man and end of humanity according to ancient Greek mythology

The Golden Age includes the time of the rule of Cronus, the youngest Titan and father of Zeus, over Mt. Olympus. During this time, the “golden” race of man, who were not actually golden but were extremely noble, were created by the immortals of Olympus and were permitted to live among the gods.

During this period, human beings lived to a very old age and did not have to toil or labor for food and comfort as all was provided for them by the gods. When they died, Hesiod said that the souls of the golden men lived on as “guardians” of humankind, something that Plato reaffirms in “Cratylus,” in which he describes these guardians as protectors or mortals.

The Silver Age refers to the period after the fall of Cronus and the rule of his son Zeus over the gods. It is during this period that humankind began to decline from its pinnacle in the Golden Age. Men, who lived to the age 100 during the period, stopped worshiping the Olympian gods and were constantly fighting amongst themselves. Disgusted by their behavior, Zeus eventually destroyed them all.

According to Hesiod, despite the fact that these men were not as noble as their predecessors, their souls lived on in the underworld as “blessed spirits.”

During the following period, the Bronze Age, humans were warlike, and subsequently became extremely tough. After destroying the men from the Silver Age, Zeus created the Bronze Age men out of ash trees.

All of their goods, including tool, weapons, and even homes, were made of bronze, and these men were always at war.

This violence led to their downfall, as they wiped each other out in battle. Their souls are said to reside in the “dark house of Hades.” Anything that remained was washed away in the flood of Deucalion when Zeus decided to flood the earth and chose Deucalion and his wife Pyrra as the only two survivors.

The couple built an arc and eventually went on to repopulate the earth by throwing the “bones of their mother” behind them, which they correctly assumed referred to stones and mother Earth. The rocks Deucalion threw became men while those thrown by Pyrra became women.

The following age, the Heroic Age, is the only one which was not named after a metal, and it is the lone period that is described as improving upon the one which came before it.

During this era, the most famous heroes of Greek mythology included Jason, Perseus, Odysseus, Achilles, Antigone, and Theseus to name a few. The period spans from the arrival of the Greeks in Thessaly until the end of the Trojan war.

Hesiod claims that this race of humankind went to Elysium, where only the noble and heroic went, after they died.

At the time of Hesiod, the Iron Age, mankind must undertake great labor to survive. They live in a time of great suffering during which humans have forgotten the gods and social contracts, such as the sacred relationship between the guest and the host, which have been cast aside.

Hesiod paints a very pessimistic picture of his contemporary age during which there is “no help against evil,” and that the gods will not come to humankind’s help in the event of their destruction. This is akin to a description of the Greek poet’s imagining of the end of the world.

Hesiod’s description of the history and development of the human race was extremely influential in antiquity, and the Roman poet Ovid, who lived from 43 BC to around 16 or 17 AD, later reinterpreted the Five Ages of Man, but reduced them to four.

In his work the Metamorphoses, which outlines a series of myths that involve transformation and evolution, Ovid describes four periods of human history but does not include the Heroic Age, which is present in Hesiod’s work.

Much like Hesiod, Ovid considers the Golden age the pinnacle of mankind, during which peace and justice were widespread, and men did not go to war but only tended to the land.

In the Silver Age, Zeus created seasons, and mankind developed more complex agricultural knowledge and began to learn about art and architecture.

Much like in the work of Hesiod, men during the Bronze Age were warlike and constantly engaging in battle with each other. Unlike in the earlier Greek work, however, these human beings were still dedicated to worshiping the gods.

In the Iron Age, during which men mastered many arts and methods of exploration, human beings lost core moral values, such as honesty and loyalty.

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