According to some, the extraterrestrial worked at Area 51 for some years. Credit: Video screenshot/History Channel
Conspiracy theories have created J. Rod the Alien —an extraterrestrial person— who is said to have been employed by the US government in Area 51.
The J. Rod tales initially surfaced in the 1980s, and several novels and TV series have helped to promote them.
According to these tales, J. Rod is a tall, slender alien with large, almond-shaped eyes. He is said to have been a survivor of a UFO crash in Kingman, Arizona, in 1953.
After the crash, J. Rod was taken to Area 51, where he helped scientists and engineers to reverse engineer the alien technology. He is also said to have shared knowledge about his home planet and the universe with the U.S. government.
A recent documentary on the History Channel renewed interest in the tale and sparked further speculation and conspiracy theories.
According to alien author Preston Dennett, the extraterrestrial “allegedly worked at Area 51 for some years.” He went on, “J Rod’s job was to assist in reverse engineering technology that was reportedly from the 1953 Kingman UFO crash. Giving the technology that we need today. Most of the electronic devices we are using today.”
J. Rod the alien and the claims
The stories of J. Rod are based on the accounts of several individuals, including military personnel and civilian contractors who worked at Area 51. These individuals claim to have seen J. Rod with their own eyes and to have spoken with him.
Bill Uhouse, a former Navy pilot who claimed to have researched the UFO that crashed in Kingman, was stationed at Area 51 in the middle of the 1960s.
In an interview from 2000, he claimed to have had direct communication with J Rod and stated that the alien “sounded just like you” and “tried to answer questions.” The alien spoke perfect English, not an animatronic android or a CGI, the alien was real.
Dan Burisch, another individual, says he was employed as a microbiologist to care for J Rod and ensure he stayed well. He said the government made him take tissue samples from the captured alien and claimed they became friends during the two years he worked on the project.
1953 Kingman, Arizona UFO crash
The Kingman UFO crash is one of the “best verified” in the United States, Dennett also claimed.
Conspiracies say the object crashed on May 21, 1953, eight miles northeast of the Kingman Airport in the Arizona desert.
Government officials supposedly sent a team of around 40 scientists to the crash site to investigate, and they allegedly found a UFO.
“The object was described as metallic, 30 feet wide and three and a half feet high, oval-shaped with portholes,” the author said.
“Inside were two to four, four-foot-tall humanoids, deceased according to most sources, with large eyes and wearing metallic suits.”
Engineer Arthur Stancil was allegedly one of the ones who helped recover the UFO and concluded it struck the ground at 1,200 mph but was strangely undamaged.
“The object was not built by anything, obviously, that we know about on Earth,” he said. “It was more like a tear-drop-shaped cigar … like a streamlined cigar.”
What happened to the alien?
The whereabouts of J. Rod are unknown. There is no concrete evidence to support his existence, and experts believe that he is a hoax.
One theory espoused by UFO enthusiasts is that J. Rod is still alive and living in seclusion. Some others suggest that he was eventually released from Area 51 and allowed to return to his home planet.
It is also possible that he remains under the control of the U.S. government, perhaps in a secret facility or on a remote island, some believe.
Another possibility is that J. Rod is deceased. Some accounts suggest that he died while working at Area 51, while others claim that he was killed by the government.
Archaeologists recently unlocked a 2,600-year-old Etruscan tomb that had stayed sealed for centuries. This ancient tomb was found in Vulci, a once prosperous Etruscan city in central Italy.
The tomb has two rooms and is still in excellent condition. Inside the tomb, the archaeologists found rare and valuable items and remains.
The Vulci Foundation, in collaboration with the Soprintendenza Archeologia, Belle Arti e Paesaggio for the province of Viterbo and southern Etruria, is leading the excavation efforts.
Etruscan tomb contained ancient Greek wine amphorae
Opening the large double-chamber tomb was no easy feat. The entrance was blocked by numerous tufa stone slabs, and they had to be carefully removed one by one.
The two chambers, dating back to the 7th century BC, were carefully carved into the soft volcanic tufa, as reported by Siviaggia. The first chamber contained four Etruscan transport amphorae meant for storing wine made locally.
On the other hand, the second chamber revealed a variety of amphorae and ceramics that came from the eastern Greek areas, which included Ionia and Corinth. Additionally, there were locally made items, including the unique black bucchero pottery.
Inside Chamber B, experts believe the two amphorae came from the Greek island of Chios, a place famous for producing the most highly valued wine in the Greco-Roman world. This chamber also held a tripod bowl and various iron objects, as shown in images shared by the Municipality of Montalto di Castro on Facebook.
Etruscan ritual of the ‘last meal’
Etruria, the central region of the Etruscan civilization, had fertile land perfect for growing vineyards. The Etruscans were skilled at cultivating and making high-quality wines.
The tomb, often called the ‘Tomb of the Silver Hands,’ has revealed a tablecloth used in the Etruscan tradition of the “last meal.” The way the different objects are arranged strongly indicates that this burial place was meant for an affluent Etruscan family.
Simona Carosi, the archaeologist in charge of the Archaeological and Nature Park, highlights how this discovery uniquely brings back to life the ancient funerary feast as it was organized by the Etruscans many centuries ago.
The Osteria burial ground has a track record of uncovering remarkable archaeological wonders. These include the mysterious ‘Tomb of the Sun and the Moon,’ the ‘Panathenaic’ tomb, the ‘Carved Ceilings,’ and a grand burial site known as the ‘Tomb of the Sphinx.’ All of these date back to the 6th century BC.
The opening ceremony in the Panathenaic Stadium of Athens. Public Domain
On April 6, 1896, the first modern Olympic games began in Athens, Greece with the opening ceremony in the Panathenaic Stadium, the only stadium in the world built entirely of marble.
Athens was chosen to honor the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from at least 776 BC until they were abolished in 393 AD. Reviving the Olympic Games in Athens was seen as a way to pay homage to this ancient tradition.
The late 19th century saw a resurgence of interest in classical Greek culture and ideals across Europe, known as the Greek revival movement. Holding the first modern Olympics in Athens was a way to celebrate this cultural revival and showcase Greece’s historical importance.
Cover of the official report of the 1896 Athens Summer Olympics. Often listed as the poster of the Games. Public Domain
Greece had recently gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century and was eager to assert its newfound national identity on the world stage. Hosting the first modern Olympics provided Greece with an opportunity to showcase its progress and promote itself as a modern nation rooted in ancient heritage.
The idea of reviving the Olympic Games was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin, a French educator and historian, who sought to promote international understanding and cooperation through sport. By choosing Athens as the host city, the organizers aimed to involve Greece and other nations in this vision of global unity.
In the lead-up to the 1896 Olympics, Athens underwent significant preparations to host the games. New sports facilities were constructed, including the Panathenaic Stadium, which was refurbished to host the opening and closing ceremonies.
The Games were funded by the legacies of Evangelis Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas and by George Averoff who had been specifically requested by the Greek government, through Crown Prince Constantine, to sponsor the second refurbishment of the Panathenaic Stadium.
The Greek government did this despite the cost of refurbishing the stadium in marble already being funded in full by Evangelis Zappas forty years earlier.
Public Domain
Athletes participating in the first modern Olympic Games in Athens
There were 241 athletes and 14 nationalities competing in the games. Except for the American Team, every participant was European or a resident of Europe.
Among the athletes competing, Greeks made up over 65 percent. Silver medals were awarded to the winners, while copper medals were handed to the runners-up. The IOC changed them to gold and silver medals retroactively, while third-place competitors received bronze.
Medals were won by ten of the 14 participating countries. The United States won eleven gold medals, while Greece, the host country, took home the most medals, 47.
Athletes warm up for the 100-meter race in the Athens Olympics. Public Domain
The Greeks’ most memorable moment was their fellow countryman Spyros Louis’ marathon triumph. Louis was celebrated as a national hero.
As he approached the finish line at the Panathenaic Stadium 80,000 Greek fans rose to their feet in celebration and the runner had to actually be escorted to safety by King George I’s royal entourage.
Louis recalled the moments after his victory on April 10, 1896: “That hour was something unimaginable and it still appears to me in my memory like a dream … Twigs and flowers were raining down on me. Everybody was calling out my name and throwing their hats in the air …”
Spyros Louis (on the right) triumphed in the Marathon run. Public Domain
Seven venues were used for the 1896 Summer Olympics. Panathenaic Stadium was the main venue, hosting four of the nine sports contested. The city of Marathon served as host to the marathon event and the individual road race events. Swimming was held in the Bay of Zea, fencing at the Zappeion, sport shooting at Kallithea, and tennis at the Athens Lawn Tennis Club.
The Games were a great success
The 1896 Olympics were regarded as a great success. The Games had the largest international participation of any sporting event to that date. The Panathenaic Stadium overflowed with the largest crowd ever to watch a sporting event.
After the Games, Coubertin and the IOC were petitioned by several prominent figures, including Greece’s King George and some of the American competitors in Athens, to hold all the following Games in Athens.
However, the 1900 Summer Olympics were already planned for Paris and, except the Intercalated Games of 1906, the Olympics did not return to Greece until the 2004 Summer Olympics, 108 years later.
Broken hearts: Helen and Menelaus on a vase in the Louvre. The couple represents fears about love in ancient Greece. Source: Wikimedia Commons/ Public domain
How did people in ancient Greece view love?
By Firmin DeBrabander, Professor of Philosophy, Maryland Institute College of Art
In the beginning, humans were androgynous. So says Aristophanes in his fantastical account of the origins of love in Plato’s Symposium.
Not only did early humans have both sets of sexual organs, Aristophanes reports, but they were outfitted with two faces, four hands, and four legs. These monstrosities were very fast – moving by way of cartwheels – and they were also quite powerful; so powerful, in fact, that the gods were nervous for their dominion.
Wanting to weaken the humans, Zeus, Greek king of gods, decided to cut each in two, and commanded his son Apollo “to turn its face…towards the wound so that each person would see that he’d been cut and keep better order.” If, however, the humans continued to pose a threat, Zeus promised to cut them again – “and they’ll have to make their way on one leg, hopping!”
The severed humans were a miserable lot, Aristophanes said: “[Each] one longed for its other half, and so they would throw their arms about each other, weaving themselves together, wanting to grow together.”
Finally, Zeus, moved by pity, decided to turn their sexual organs to the front, so they might achieve some satisfaction in embracing.
Apparently, he initially neglected to do so, and as Aristophanes explains, the severed humans had “cast seed and made children, not in one another, but in the ground, like cicadas.”
So goes Aristophanes’ contribution to the Symposium, where Plato’s characters take turns composing speeches about love – interspersed with heavy drinking.
It is no mistake that Plato gives Aristophanes the most outlandish of speeches. He was the famous comic playwright of Athens, responsible for bawdy fare like Lysistrata, during which the women of Greece “go on strike” and refuse sex to their husbands until they stop warring.
What does Aristophanes’ speech have to do with love?
An enduring question since ancient Greece: Is love a cure for our “wound?”
Aristophanes says his speech explains “the source of our desire to love each other.” He says: “Love is born into every human being; it calls back the halves of our original nature together; it tries to make one out of two and heal the wound of human nature. Each of us, then, is a ‘matching half’ of a human whole…and each of us is always seeking the half that matches him.”
This diagnosis should sound familiar to our ears. It’s the notion of love ingrained deep in the American consciousness, inspiring Hallmark writers and Hollywood producers alike – imparted with each romantic comedy on offer.
Love is the discovery of one’s soulmate, we like to say; it is to find your other half – the person who completes me, as Jerry Maguire, Tom Cruise’s smitten sports agent, so famously put it.
As a philosopher, I am always amazed at how Plato’s account here, uttered by Aristophanes, uncannily evokes our very modern view of love. It is a profoundly moving, beautiful, and wistful account.
As Aristophanes depicts it, we may see love as the cure for our wound or as the “wound of human nature.” So, what is this wound? On the one hand, of course, Aristophanes means something quite literal – the wound perpetrated by Zeus. However, for philosophers, talk of a “wound of human nature” suggests so much more.
Why we seek love, according to philosophers from ancient Greece
Humans are inherently wounded, the Greek philosophers agreed. At the very least, they concluded, we are prone to fatal habits, seemingly ingrained in our nature.
Humans insist on looking for satisfaction in things that cannot provide real or lasting fulfillment. These false lures include material goods, power, and fame, Aristotle explained. A life devoted to any of these goals becomes quite miserable and empty.
Christian philosophers, led by Augustine, accepted this diagnosis, and added a theological twist. Pursuit of material goods is evidence of the Fall, and symptomatic of our sinful nature. Thus, we are like aliens here in this world – or as the societies of the medieval ages would put it, pilgrims, on the way to a supernatural destination.
Humans seek to satisfy desire in worldly things, Augustine says, but are doomed, because we bear a kernel of the infinite within us. Thus, finite things cannot fulfill. We are made in the image of God, and our infinite desire can only be satisfied by the infinite nature of God.
In the 17th century, French philosopher Blaise Pascal offered an account of the wound of our nature more in tune with secular sensibilities. He claimed that the source of our sins and vices lay in our inability to sit still, be alone with ourselves, and ponder the unknowable.
We seek out troublesome diversions like war, inebriation or gambling to preoccupy the mind and block out distressing thoughts that seep in; perhaps we are alone in the universe – perhaps we are adrift on this tiny rock, in an infinite expanse of space and time with no friendly forces looking down on us.
The wound of our nature is the existential condition, Pascal suggests. Thanks to the utter uncertainty of our situation, which no science can answer or resolve, we perpetually teeter on the brink of anxiety or despair.
“The Kiss,” Francesco Hayez, 1859. Credit: Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain
Is love an answer to life’s problems?
Returning to Plato’s proposition, issued through Aristophanes: how many view romantic love as the answer to life’s problems? How many expect or hope that love will heal the “wound” of our nature and give meaning to life?
I suspect many do: our culture practically decrees it.
Your soulmate, Hollywood says, may take a surprising, unexpected form. She may seem your opposite, but you are inexplicably attracted nonetheless. Alternately, your beloved may appear to be initially boorish or aloof, but you personally find him to be sweet.
Hollywood films typically end once the romantic heroes find their soulmates, offering no glimpse of life during post-wedding bliss or when kids and work close in – the real test of love.
Aristophanes places demands and expectations on love that are quite extreme.
“[When] a person meets the half that is his very own,” he exclaims, “something wonderful happens: the two are struck from their senses by love, by a sense of belonging to one another, and by desire, and they don’t want to be separated from one another, not even for a moment. These are people who finish out their lives together and still cannot say what it is they want from one another.”
This sounds miraculous and alluring, but Plato doesn’t believe it, which is why he couches it in Aristophanes’ satirical story. In short: it’s all quite mythical.
Does true love exist?
The notion of a “soulmate,” implies that there is but one person in the universe who is your match, one person in creation who completes you – whom you will recognize in a flash of lightning.
What if in your search for true love, you cast about waiting or expecting to be star-struck in vain? What if there isn’t a perfect partner that you’re waiting for?
Is this one reason why, as the Pew Research Center reports, we see a record number of unmarried Americans?
Alternately, what if you dive into a relationship, marriage even, expecting the luster and satiation to endure, but it does not, and gives way to…ordinary life, where the ordinary questions and doubts and dissatisfactions of life reemerge and linger?
In his book Modern Romance, actor and comedian Aziz Ansari tells of a wedding he attended that could have been staged by Aristophanes himself: “The vows…were powerful. They were saying the most remarkable things about each other. Things like ‘You are a prism that takes the light of life and turns it into a rainbow’…”
The vows, Ansari explains, were so exultant, so lofty and transcendent, that “four different couples broke up, supposedly because they didn’t feel they had the love that was expressed in those vows.”
“The Victory of Eros,” by Angelica Kauffmann, 1750-1775. Love was represented by Eros in Ancient Greece. Credit: Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain2
Enduring love is more mundane
Love is not the solution to life’s problems, as anyone who has been in love can attest. Romance is often the start of many headaches and heartaches. And why put such a burden on another person in the first place?
It seems unfair. Why look to your partner to heal an existential wound and to heal your soul? This is an immense responsibility no mere mortal can address.
I accept the backhanded critique Plato offers here through Aristophanes. Though I am hardly an expert on the matter, I have found his message quite accurate in this respect: true love is far more mundane.
I should specify: true love is mundane in its origins if not in its conclusion. That is to say, true love is not discovered all of a sudden, at first sight, but rather, it’s the product of immense work, constant attention, and sacrifice.
Love is not the solution to life’s problems, but it certainly makes them more bearable, and the entire process more enjoyable. If soulmates exist, they are made and fashioned, after a lifetime partnership, a lifetime shared dealing with common duties, enduring pain, and of course, knowing joy.
Firmin DeBrabander, Professor of Philosophy, Maryland Institute College of Art
This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license.
The narrow streets of the Old City are paved with cobblestones, adding to the charm of the area. Credit: Serge Traveler, CC BY-SA 4.0/Wikipedia
The Old Town of Xanthi in northern Greece is a beautiful destination steeped in history and characterized by rare architecture influenced by the many different cultures in its past.
Amphitheatrically built on the foot of Rhodope mountain chain, the city is divided by the Kosynthos River, into the west part, where the old and the modern town are located, and the east part which boasts a rich natural environment.
The Old Town of Xanthi is known throughout Greece for its distinctive architecture, combining many Byzantine Greek churches with neoclassical mansions of Greek merchants from the 18th and 19th centuries and Ottoman-Era mosques.
In 1976 it was declared a protected settlement with over 1,200 classic buildings classified as landmarks. The buildings have been standing since the early 19th century, and the alleys and streets between them are mostly pedestrianized.
The buildings have certain specifications, and owners of houses in the Old Town have to follow specific construction laws to renovate or alter their homes.
The Old Town in Xanthi: A mystical allure
Many buildings in the Old Town date back to the Ottoman period and their architecture is characterized by elements such as overhanging upper floors, wooden balconies, and colorful facades.
The Ottoman influence is evident in the layout of streets and the design of traditional houses. Xanthi still has a sizeable population of Muslims.
Upper floors served as living quarters and feature wooden elements such as balconies and ornate windows. Credit: Serge Traveler, CC BY-SA 4.0/Wikipedia
The houses in the Old Town are often two or three stories high, with the ground floor typically used for storage or workshops. The upper floors served as living quarters and feature wooden elements such as balconies and ornate windows.
The narrow streets are paved with cobblestones, adding to the charm of the area. Wandering through these streets, visitors can admire the well-preserved architecture and discover hidden corners.
Many buildings in the Old Town are adorned with vibrant colors. Credit: Handrian.,CC BY-SA 4.0/Wikipedia
Many buildings in the Old Town are adorned with vibrant colors, creating a lively and visually appealing environment. The use of bold hues adds to the uniqueness of the architecture and contributes to the overall atmosphere of the area.
There are intricate architectural details on the facades of buildings, including decorative elements, carvings, and inscriptions. These details often tell a story about the history and cultural influences that have shaped Xanthi over the years.
Xanthi, the birthplace of famous Greek composer Manos Hadjidakis, is known for its vibrant folk traditions, including music, dance, and festivals that celebrate its diverse cultural influences.
The iconic clock tower, known as the “Old Clock,” stands as a symbol of the city’s past and offers panoramic views of the surrounding area.
Xanthi was known for its prosperous tobacco trade. The grand remnants of this era can be found at the entrance of the railway station, where the old tobacco houses stand.
These architectural gems narrate the past glories and the economic prosperity of the city. In the future, the tobacco houses will likely be developed into cultural sites.
No other city in Greece has associated its name with the period of the tobacco boom (1880-1925) as much as Xanthi. The dynamics of both trade and the quality of tobacco gave the city a new breath and glamour for the standards of that time.
The first large tobacco shop opened its doors in Xanthi in 1890, offering its employees high wages and the prospect of a better future. In just a few years Xanthi will be established as the metropolis of the highest quality oriental tobacco, Basma or Yenidje Tobacco. Large tobacco companies with multinational reach were investing in the region during this period.
The cable car will link the castle town with the upper town. Credit: Ministry of Culture
Monemvasia, one of Europe’s oldest continuously inhabited castle towns in the Peloponnese in Greece will soon be equipped with a cable car making it fully accessible by the end of 2024.
The cable car, budgeted at 6.8 million euros, will connect to the upper part of the town, Ano Poli. The project, which includes the supply, installation, and operation of the cable car and was initially announced by Culture Minister Lina Mendoni in 2021, will be funded through recovery and resilience (RRF) funds.
“The castle town of Monemvasia is a special monumental and residential complex, where the active settlement of the lower town coexists with the archaeological site of the upper town,” Mendoni said recently.
“With the projects we are already implementing—the installation of a cable car, the conversion of the Yannis Ritsos house into a Municipal Museum, the illumination of the Rock, the restoration of the walls—but also those that have already been completed, such as the restoration of the Church of Agia Sophia in Ano Town, our goal is to highlight Monemvasia as a whole, connecting the Upper Town with the Lower Town, making it completely accessible to every visitor,” she added.
A man-made road and stone bridge leads to the castle gate and main entrance of the majestic castle town onward through the colorful and lively citadel offering all who visit her both stunning views and an unforgettable ‘ambience’ of times past.
The fortress’ stone walls protected the citadel of Monemvasia from various invaders throughout its history. Invasions by the Crusaders, Venetians, and, lastly, by the Ottomans have all left an indelible cultural and architectural mark, granting the citadel a unique charm and romantic atmosphere close to none.
The town’s name is derived from two Greek words, mone and emvasia, meaning “single entrance.” The “Gibraltar of the East” or a “stone ship” about to set sail, as the famous Greek poet Yannis Ritsos described his birthplace, beckons you for a journey through time, wandering through vaulted alleyways and past churches and aristocratic mansions.
Cable car to help visitors visit the upper town of Monemvasia
At present, one can reach the upper town or ‘acropolis’ by climbing up the narrow pathway that leads to the summit from the main square.
On the summit, one can enjoy a breathtaking view of the fortress city below, surrounded by the sea. Positioned on the very edge of the cliff, there is a single building still left standing, the recently restored church of St. Sophia which was built in the 12th century A.D.
Once an invincible fortress, the Upper Town was home to the aristocracy of Monemvasia.
During the 17th century A.D. there were more than five hundred mansions on the upper slopes of the castle citadel. Today, very little is left to remind this rich local history if not, the stone ruins and cisterns that are scattered amongst the wildflowers and bushes that hide its glorious past.
The ‘acropolis’ situated on the very tip of the rock is approximately three hundred meters from sea level.
A partial eclipse was visible in North America early on the morning of June 10, 2021. Seen here is the crescent of the rising sun over the Capitol building in Washington, D.C. Credit: NASA
On April 8, 2024, a total solar eclipse will cross North America, passing over Mexico, the United States, and Canada.
A total solar eclipse happens when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, completely blocking the face of the Sun. The sky will darken as if it were dawn or dusk.
Anyone who has ever witnessed a total solar eclipse — or even a partial one — has been overawed and a little unsettled by the experience. Solar eclipses were one of the phenomena that prompted the ancient Greeks to study the stars and come up with the most brilliant astronomic discoveries of all time.
Let’s be honest, it’s never a good feeling to know that humans are not in charge and that our Sun’s precious rays can be obliterated in an instant, although we know full well that it is absolutely a temporary phenomenon.
It doesn’t take much imagination to think about how deep an impression eclipses made in the minds of those who went before us in time, who had no way of knowing the scientific ins and outs of the courses of the stars and planets — and who did not know that the sun indeed would ever emerge again.
But the patterns of eclipses set in motion the inner workings of the minds of some of the greatest men in scientific history, including ancient Greek astronomers; in the end, they were able to determine just why eclipses occurred and to dispel — at least to some extent — the unease that people felt whenever the moon blocked the sun.
Every time Earth experiences such an event, it is big news. It is for good reason that people converge en masse in areas which will be shadowed in an eclipse. The sight is a magnificent one, even to modern earthlings. A total solar eclipse, when the moon passes between the sun and the Earth, is a staggering event. For a few spellbinding minutes, day turns to night; the skies darken; the air instantly feels chillier. For those who look carefully and closely, stars can even appear in the sky.
The total solar eclipses of 1990 and 1991, as seen from earth and from space. Credit: Earthobservatory/NASA.gov
Beyond awe-inspiring, solar eclipses often struck real fear in ancient peoples around the world, prompting their religious leaders and shamans to find reasons for the event, leading to scores of myths and rituals that were meant to shield their people from the evil that was thought to reign at that time of such unnatural darkness.
Astronomer and anthropologist Anthony Aveni, the author of “In the Shadow of the Moon: The Science, Magic, and Mystery of Solar Eclipses” tells Smithsonian Magazine “When anything extraordinary happens in nature … it stimulates a discussion about instability in the universe.”
During a total solar eclipse, the Moon casts its shadow over the Earth when it moves in front of the Sun like the beam of a flashlight in reverse. Within this shadow — which measures about 100 miles across, according to NASA — day becomes night for a few minutes as the Sun’s disk turns black, surrounded by a glowing halo.
No one could think it surprising that there is a long history of prehistoric and ancient peoples cultures believing that eclipses were omens that portended significant — usually negative — events. The indescribable sense that our universe has been upended during these natural events inspired awe and fear, yes, but it also contributed to the formation of a scientific understanding of just how our universe works.
Ultimately, it laid the foundation for modern astronomy, with the brilliant contributions of the Ancient Greek astronomers.
The ancient Babylonians were the first to record their efforts to make true scientific inroads into why the sun came to be darkened at these times.
A clay tablet inscribed in Babylonian from the first to third century BC shows a ritual that must be observed in the observances of eclipses. Part of the translated text reads: “That catastrophe, murder, rebellion, and the eclipse approach not… (the people of the land) shall cry aloud; for a lamentation they shall send up their cry.”
Because eclipses were considered by nearly all ancient peoples to be of grave significance, it was very important to learn if there was a pattern to them — and if so, how to predict them.
That meant keeping a close watch on the movements of the sun, moon and stars, writing down records of unusual celestial events and using them to create celestial calendars. From these first records, many peoples — including the Babylonians, Greeks, the Chinese, Mayas and others — began to discern patterns that could foretell when these disturbing events were set to recur.
A reproduction of the Antikythera Mechanism on display at the National Observatory in Athens. Credit:Facebook/National Observatory of Athens
Saros Cycle Detected by Babylonians, Encapsulated in Antikythera Mechanism
The Babylonians were among the first in the world to scientifically predict when a solar eclipse would indeed take place.
By the eighth century BC, Babylonian astronomers had been able to detect a pattern which was later dubbed the “Saros cycle.” This is a period of 6,585.3 days (18 years, 11 days, 8 hours) in which sets of eclipses repeat themselves.
John Dvorak, the author of the book “Mask of the Sun: The Science, History and Forgotten Lore of Eclipses,” notes that while the Saros cycle applies to both lunar and solar eclipses, it is likely that the Babylonians could only reliably predict lunar eclipses, which are visible to half of the Earth each time they happen, and thus are more easily studied.
Solar eclipses cast a relatively smaller shadow, as seen in the NASA image above, making it much less common to view such an event multiple times at any one place on Earth.
The Babylonian predictions, although accurate, were all based purely on observations, according to Dvorak; as far as scholars know now, their investigators never understood or perhaps even sought to understand the mechanism behind the motions of the planets. “It was all done on the basis of cycles,” he says.
Only in 1687, when Sir Isaac Newton published his theory of universal gravitation, which which drew heavily on the observations made by Greek astronomers, that we began to grasp the idea of complex planetary motions.
Aristarchus First Greek Astronomer to Posit Universe is Heliocentric
it was the ancient Greek astronomer Aristarchus who initiated the theory that the universe is heliocentric and that the planets are round — an essential understanding in any notion of an eclipse.
Although the Babylonians of Mesopotamia looked to the skies and postulated that the stars, the moon and the sun were gods that ruled over men. It was the ancient Greeks who took those theories of deities and turned them into mathematical equations and calculations.
One of the first people in the world to observe the moon scientifically, Aratus is so well known and respected by astronomers that when astronauts took the first step on the moon, the first crater they named was for Aratus.
Aratus was widely known during both the Hellenistic and Roman periods and his works on astronomy, as well as his poetry, are still read and studied to this day.
Often, Aratus combined astronomy with poetry, creating unique works that were extremely popular in his time. He is best known for his work “Phenomena,” a hexameter poem that describes the constellations.
The moving parts of a a reproduction of the Antikythera Mechanism, an ancient analog computer. Credit: Freeth, T., Higgon, D., Dacanalis Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
Pythagorean Theorem and a Spherical Earth
Pythagoras of Samos, who lived from 570 to 495 BC, an ancient Greek astronomer and philosopher, was the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. Pythagoras was credited with many mathematical and scientific discoveries in antiquity.
In astronomy Pythagoras is credited with the belief that the earth is spherical and for identifying the morning and evening “stars” that we know today as the planet Venus. By the end of the fifth century BC, this fact was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.
Ancient Greek Astronomer Aristarchus’ Heliocentric Model of the Universe
Aristarchus of Samos, who lived from 310 to c. 230 BC, was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician who presented the first known heliocentric model that placed the sun at the center of the known universe, with the earth revolving around the sun once a year and rotating about its axis once a day. Aristarchus identified the “central fire” with the sun. He put the other planets in their correct order of distance around the sun.
Aristarchus suspected that the stars were just other bodies like the sun, albeit farther away from earth. His astronomical ideas were, however, rejected in favor of the geocentric theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy.
Aristarchus estimated the sizes of the sun and moon as compared to the earth’s size. He also estimated the distances from the earth to the sun and moon, another key factor in how a solar eclipse is experienced on earth.
Ancient Greek Astronomer Eratosthenes Calculated Earth’s Circumference
Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who lived from 276 BC to 195 BC, was an ancient Greek astronomer who was also a multi-discipline scholar, or polymath. He was a mathematician, geographer, poet, astronomer and music theorist. He was a man of such learning that he also became the chief librarian at the Library of Alexandria.
Eratosthenes is best known for being the first person known to calculate the circumference of the earth, which he did by using the extensive survey results he could access in his role as the director of the Library of Alexandria. His calculation, a remarkably accurate one, is also pivotal in understanding how the shadow of the earth functions to create a lunar eclipse — another portentous event in prehistoric times.
Metonas the Mathemetician and Ancient Greek Astronomer
Metonas was a Greek mathematician, astronomer and engineer who lived in Athens in the 5th century BC. He is best known for the calculations he made for the Metonic cycle in 432 BC for the lunar calendar year of Attica.
Metonas’ calendar assumes that 19 solar years equals 235 lunar months, which equals 6,940 days. This system arose from calculations made by Metonas based on his own astronomical observations, which were confirmed by Aristarchus 152 years later.
According to the testimonies of ancient historians, Metonas installed the first Heliotropion, or Helioscope, a mechanism for observing the sun, in Pynx in Athens. The foundations of the Helioscope are incredibly still visible just behind the steps leading to Pnyx, the archaeological site perched on a small, rocky hill, just over 330 feet high in the center of Athens.
Antikythera Mechanism Calculates Solar Eclipses, Planetary Movement
The Antikythera Mechanism, often referred to as the world’s first computer, was discovered inside an ancient shipwreck by Greek sponge divers on May 17, 1901. After numerous studies, it was estimated to have been constructed between 150 BC and 100 BC. A later study places it at 205 BC, just seven years after the death of the brilliant astronomer Archimedes.
It is concrete proof that the ancient Greeks not only understood how eclipses work — they even had a machine that would calculate when they would occur.
The world’s oldest surviving mechanical calculator, it was used by ancient Greek astronomers for solving a host of scientific dilemmas. The device has now been somewhat deteriorated by the passage of time, but when intact it would have appeared as a box, housing dozens of finely machined bronze gear wheels.
In 2005, it was established that it predicted eclipses, using the 223-lunar-month Saros Cycle from the 7th century BC that was created by the Babylonians. Understanding the complex eclipse prediction scheme on the Antikythera Mechanism has resulted from a fascinating series of discoveries.
The eclipse prediction is implemented through descriptive glyphs, inscribed round a 223-month “Saros Dial” at the rear of the Mechanism. A glyph in a particular month indicates a predicted eclipse.
When manually rotated by a handle, the gears spun dials on the exterior showing the phases of the moon, the timing of lunar and solar eclipses, and the positions of the five planets known then (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) at different times of the year. This even accounted for their retrograde motion – an illusionary change in the movement of planets through the sky.
It may even have been the work of the great Archimedes himself, but there is no documentation of that, only speculation. Gearing technology with the sophistication of the Antikythera Mechanism was not seen again for one thousand years.
Of course, the ancient Babylonians weren’t trying to create the foundation of modern astronomy or mathematics as we know them today.
But in their tremendous efforts to understand celestial events and protect themselves against the evil that they believe solar eclipses portended, they began the scientific discovery that was perfected by the Greeks.
In giving the Greeks greatly-detailed records of the cosmos, they paved the way for the brilliant ancient Greek thinkers to prove once and for all — by calculations carried out by a machine — that indeed there were patterns to such natural phenomena, and thus they were not to be feared.
Astronomers today still use these extensive databases of ancient eclipses, originating in the time of ancient Babylon, to understand Earth’s movements throughout the ages.
So when we experience the otherworldly feeling that we surely will during the next eclipse, say a few words of thanks to the brilliant men of ancient Greece, who told us that there was nothing left to fear.
Ephialtes betrayed King Leonidas and his 300 Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae. Public Domain
Ephialtes of Trachis, whose name means “nightmare” in Greek is regarded as one of the most notorious traitors in the history of Greece.
Ephialtes played a significant role in the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC by leading the Persian forces, under King Xerxes I, through a mountain pass called Anopaea, which bypassed the Greek defenses. This allowed the Persians to outflank the Greek forces led by King Leonidas of Sparta, ultimately leading to their defeat.
His name became synonymous with betrayal in Greek history. The name “Ephialtes” received a lasting stigma; it came to mean “nightmare” in the Greek language and to symbolize the archetypal traitor in Greek culture, similar to Judas in Christian culture and to Benedict Arnold in the American historical memory.
Historical accounts of Ephialtes at the Battle of Thermopylae
Herodotus, known as the “father of history”, provides an account of Ephialtes’ betrayal in Book 7 of his work “Histories.” He describes how Ephialtes, seeking a reward from the Persian King Xerxes I, revealed to him a secret mountain path that allowed the Persian army to bypass the Greek defense at the narrow pass of Thermopylae.
Ephialtes, motivated by a desire for personal gain, approached the Persian King Xerxes and informed him about a mountain path that would allow the Persian army to circumvent the Greek defense at Thermopylae, Herodotus wrote.
This path, known as the Anopaea Pass, led through the mountains and emerged behind the Greek position, thus enabling the Persians to outflank the Greek forces led by King Leonidas.
Xerxes, realizing the strategic significance of this information, dispatched a force under the command of Hydarnes to take advantage of the mountain path revealed by Ephialtes. This contingent of Persian troops successfully navigated the path and arrived behind the Greek lines, catching them by surprise.
As a result of Ephialtes’ betrayal and the Persian flanking maneuver, the Greek position at Thermopylae was compromised, ultimately leading to their defeat in the battle.
Herodotus portrays Ephialtes as a traitor motivated by personal gain, whose actions played a crucial role in the outcome of the Battle of Thermopylae.
Another ancient historian Diodorus Siculus provides a brief account of Ephialtes’ betrayal in his work “Bibliotheca historica” (Library of History). In Book 11, Chapter 4, he briefly mentions Ephialtes and his role in the Battle of Thermopylae. Plutarch also mentions Ephialtes and his role in his biography of the Athenian politician and general Themistocles.
What happened to the Greek traitor Ephialtes after Thermopylae?
From the historical accounts, we know that Ephialtes was a citizen of Trachis a city-state in central Greece located west of Thermopylae and was populated by the Malians. Its main town was also called Trachis until 426 BC when it was refounded as a Spartan colony and became Heraclea Trachinia.
But what happened to Ephialtes after the betrayal? Again Herodotus sheds some light:
“Ephialtes afterwards fled into Thessaly, for fear of the Lacedaemonians [ed: Spartans]; and he being so banished a price was put on his head by the Pylagori when the Amphictyons sat together in their council at Thermopylae [ed: Malis was a member of the Amphictyonic league];
“And a long time after that, having returned to Anticyra, he was slain by Athenades, a man of Trachis. It was for another cause (which I will tell in the latter part of my history) that this Athenades slew Ephialtes, but he was nonetheless honored for it by the Lacedaemonians.”
Battle of Thermopylae
It was most likely on August 7th of 480 BC that one of the most decisive battles ever recorded in Greek history, the Battle of Thermopylae, took place against the Persian Empire.
This battle, which has come to be the embodiment of the Greek ideal of freedom as later conceptualized by Aristotle, between two powerful forces in Central Greece would determine the fate of Western civilization.
The great Battle of Thermopylae and the valiant fight of the 300 fearless Spartans under the command of warrior King Leonidas against ten thousand elite Persian soldiers is one of the most brilliant moments in ancient Greek history.
In retrospect, it proved to be no less than a fight for the defense of Western Civilization itself. Although the battle itself was lost, the war was eventually won.
Several villages near the town of Ierapetra were evacuated on Saturday. File photo. Credit: AMNA
A major wildfire – the first of the summer season in Greece, rages on Saturday near Ierapetra, southern Crete.
Authorities have ordered the evacuation of several villages threatened by the flames aided by strong winds. Dozens of firefighters and fire-dousing helicopters are trying to control the spread of the wildfire.
A message has been sent via the emergency number 112 to the residents of Mavros Kolymbos, Achlia, Agia Fotia and Galini in order to move away from their village and head towards Koutsouras due to the ongoing forest fire.
Wildfires break earlier than expected as Greece records warm winter
Wildfires are already breaking out in Greece amid temperatures that reached 30 degrees Celsius in early April despite the fire season not being expected for another few weeks at least.
Volunteers and firefighters rapidly pulled the “victims” to safety through clouds of red smoke, as a drone whirring above sent live video of the rescue to a national coordination center.
“Due to climate, conditions have changed. Everything in nature is dry now and it’s very easy to catch fire. So we have to be ready to deal with it,” said Loukia Kefalogianni, the deputy regional government of the capital’s North Attica region.
Greece has experienced the warmest winter on record this year according to preliminary data from the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) analyzed by the scientific team of meteo.gr.
Specifically, the 2023-2024 winter, lasting from December 2023 to February 2024, in Greece was marked by extended periods of high temperatures, significantly surpassing seasonal norms.
Meteo reports that the winter of 2023-2024 was recorded as the warmest in Greek history, surpassing the winter of 2015-2016. The average maximum temperature in Greece during the winter period has risen by 1.8°C from 1960 to 2024.
Greece orders 7 firefighting aircraft from Canada
To better deal with the heightened risk of wildfires, Greece is fast-tracking a 2.1 billion euros ($2.3 billion) scheme to upgrade its fleet of water tankers and produce an artificial intelligence-driven sensor network to detect smoke in the early stages of a fire.
However, delivery of the new equipment won’t begin until next year, which leaves planners in a position of having to find alternatives to drive down response times.
Greece was once again at the center of Europe’s fire season during the summer last year. The nation experienced the most devastating wildfire in European Union records.
Fires destroyed an estimated 1,750 square kilometers (675 square miles) last year. Deliveries to the country of seven new Canadian-made DHC-515 firefighting aircraft, part of a wider European Union order by six member states, are set to begin in 2027.
Easter eggs at a market in Athens. Credit: Reinhard Kirchner /Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0
The dating of Greek Easter or Pascha has bedeviled theologians for centuries. While other Christians in the West are finishing off all their chocolate eggs, for some people Easter is happening—seemingly all over again.
By George Sapounidis
Orthodox Christians, in some countries, including Greece and Cyprus, celebrate Easter later than most in the Western world.
This may seem either banal or…bizarre. But this isn’t done to confuse everyone. It’s all for mathematical reasons.
Math, did you say? My ears just quivered. If you’re not a numbers guy like me, who has a PhD (Pizza Hut Delivery) in the subject, you could just as well say: Enough already! Why not just pick a day and be done with it!
The dating of Greek Easter is complicated
It mostly boils down to the fact that those who adhere to Greek Orthodoxy espouse the calendar devised by Julius Caesar—the Roman general turned dictator—versus the calendar tweaked by the Pope…Gregory, that is, then the leader of the Roman Catholic Church. Hmm…come to think of it, they’re both Roman!
The fundamental problem that anyone making a calendar has to grapple with is the fact that it takes just a shade more than 365 days for Earth to make a full trip around the sun. More precisely, it takes 365.24219 days. Now we’re talking!
So if you construct a calendar with only 365 days, the seasons will fall ever so slowly out of whack with the months. Eventually, Christmas would show up in the middle of summer— chaos!
Enter Caesar! The Julian calendar was a reform of the previous Roman calendar, which was a messy hodgepodge. It took effect on January 1, 46 BC by edict. It was designed with the aid of Greek mathematicians (yes!) and Greek astronomers (yes!) such as Sosigenes of Alexandria.
But things were still a bit out of whack. It had a leap day every four years, which turned out to be an overcorrection. The average year now had 365.25 days in it—just a shade more than 365.24219. By the 1570s, those slight differences had added up. The calendar was now out of sync with the solar year by about ten days.
Enter Pope Gregory! In 1577 he appointed a commission to solve the problem. It took five years, but they finally came up with a fix: First, let’s just eliminate those extra 10 days and get back on schedule. Gone!
Next, let’s tweak the system of leap years. We’ll have leap years every four years except on centennial years that aren’t divisible by 400. So there’s a leap year in 2000, but not in 1900 or 1800 or 1700. In summary, the contemporary Pope decreed (not dictated … big difference) that the ten days following October 4th simply wouldn’t exist. The next day would be…October 15.
In other words, the decree was: “Pfft. Those 10 days? You’ll never miss ‘em.”
Thereafter, a new calendar would come into effect that would better align the months with Earth’s journey around the sun. This would correct a mismatch in the old Roman calendar, first set up by Caesar, that was causing the months to fall steadily out of line with the seasons.
The current Gregorian calendar, with its intricate dance of leap days and leap years, seems utterly banal to those of us in the Western world today. It has a bunch of oddities. Our months are uneven, some 31 days, some 30, plus the monstrosity that is February.
By the way, leap days aren’t the only hassle for timekeepers. We also have leap seconds to contend with. But that’s a story for another day.
Oh yes, the food! Greeks everywhere traditionally eat lamb roasted on a barbecue spit and tsoureki, a sweet Easter bread. They also break their fast with a traditional soup called magiritsa, which is made of lamb, rice and dill before the main feasting begins on Sunday.
All this to say Greek Easter can sometimes fall on the same day as Western Easter. This isn’t done on purpose and isn’t done to confuse anyone. But only by pure and unlikely coincidence.Don’t you love math?
George Sapounidis is a Greek-Canadian mathematician who is also a musician, bridging Greek and many other cultures in his work.
