There is a rare and mysterious condition, chronicled by Byzantine physicians, in which a person genuinely believes they are a werewolf. Unlike the fantastical transformations of horror films, these individuals experience a deep conviction that they are animals—most often wolves, but sometimes cats or dogs—and behave in ways that mirror their perceived forms.
Modern medical science classifies this condition as lycanthropy, a recognized psychiatric disorder. Patients experience delusional beliefs of transforming into a wolf, and little is known about its clinical features or effective treatments. The term lycanthropy has been used since Antiquity to describe the belief in human-to-wolf transformation, often accompanied by the exhibition of animal-like behaviors.
Across the centuries, its definition has remained largely consistent. A person is thought to acquire the characteristics of a wolf, roaming at night, wandering through cemeteries, and attacking humans and animals in search of raw flesh. This perceived metamorphosis into a werewolf, preserved in the medical texts of Byzantine physicians and scientists, is reflected in a rich body of earlier literary work also spanning mythology, theology, and history, and it has also drawn the attention of modern physicians, particularly psychiatrists. Lycanthropy is a composite Greek word derived from lykos (λύκος, wolf) and anthropos (άνθρωπος, man).
Werewolves in Ancient Greek mythology
The earliest definite mention of werewolves appears in Herodotus’ Histories in which the Greek historian recounts stories on the Neuri, a people who lived in Scythia, a region corresponding to modern-day Ukraine. Herodotus writes:
“It is said by the Scythians, and by the Greeks who live in Scythia, that once every year each of the Neuri becomes a wolf for a few days, and then goes back to his original shape. Well, the people who say this don’t convince me, but they say nothing less, and they swear it is true.”
(Herodotus, Histories 4.105)
A later and more detailed account referencing lycanthropy appears in the myth of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, as recorded by the historian Apollodorus (c. 180–120 BC):
“Lycaon, son of Pelasgos, was the father of fifty sons. To test them, Zeus once appeared among them in the form of a weary traveler. They slew a child, mingled his entrails with the usual offering, and served it to the guest; whereupon Zeus overturned the table and struck Lycaon and his sons with the thunderbolt. Nyktimos, the youngest son, was the only one spared, for Gaia, the goddess Earth, stayed the hand of Zeus.”
In the Hellenistic period, the poet Lycophron expanded the myth, adding that all fifty of Lycaon’s sons were transformed into wolves. This narrative tradition helped shape later medieval understandings of the werewolf and informed the context in which Byzantine physicians preserved and transmitted Greek medical descriptions of human-to-animal delusions, a phenomenon later called lycanthropy.
The bloodiest Ancient Greek werewolf
Geographer Pausanias (110-180 AD) also wrote about the bloodiest werewolf story which was later preserved in various versions by several authors:
“Lycaon, son of Pelasgos, first king of Arcadia, founded on the mountain Lycosyra the oldest of all cities (the first that sun saw), gave Zeus the name of Lycaios and instituted games in his honor, entitled ‘Lycaia.’ All went well until he sacrificed a child and sprinkled the altar with his blood. Upon this act, he was instantly turned into a wolf.”
The region of Arcadia has been associated with the transformations of humans into wolves. In another story about the brutal ruler Lycaon, his massive brood of sons was just as cruel as he was. One day, the god Zeus arrived at Lycaon’s palace disguised as a poor traveler, seeking shelter for the night.
Lycaon and his sons invited the god in and served him a dinner consisting of human flesh and entrails— either because this was what they themselves normally ate or because they suspected that their guest was a god and wanted to see if he could identify the source of the meat. Enraged, Zeus cursed the king. In the words of the poet Ovid:
“Terror struck
he took to flight, and on the silent plains
is howling in his vain attempts to speak;
he raves and rages and his greedy jaws,
desiring their accustomed slaughter, turn
against the sheep—still eager for their blood.
His vesture separates in shaggy hair,
his arms are changed to legs; and as a wolf
he has the same grey locks, the same hard face,
the same bright eyes, the same ferocious look.”
(Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.234-239)
Lycaon’s sons suffered the same fate; the whole family turned into werewolves and wandered the countryside as savage animals.
The Byzantine werewolf emperor
Justin II (565–578 AD), nephew and successor of the great Justinian I, exhibited signs of severe psychiatric disturbance from the early years of his reign. Among his unusual behaviors, he reportedly walked around the palace barking and mewing, imitating the actions of dogs and cats. Historians have documented these strange behaviors as part of the emperor’s mental illness.
Centuries earlier, the Byzantine physician Oribasius (c. 320–400 AD) described a condition in which individuals believed themselves to be animals, a phenomenon later known as lycanthropy, or the so-called “werewolf” disorder. Oribasius, an iatrosophist trained in specialized rhetorical and philosophical medicine, greatly admired the works of Hippocrates and Galen. His most famous compilation, Iatrikai synagogai (Collectiones medicae), preserved medical knowledge that would influence Byzantine medicine for centuries and included descriptions of unusual psychiatric conditions resembling lycanthropy.
Byzantine medical literature devoted significant attention to psychiatric disorders, including epilepsy, frenzy, dementia, melancholy, mania, lethargy, insomnia, depression, and paranoia. The “werewolf” disorder is documented in the writings of eminent physicians across the centuries, such as Aetius (6th century), Paul of Aegina (7th century), Michael Psellus (11th century), and Joannes Actuarius (14th century), most of whom were associated with the Byzantine world. These texts indicate that lycanthropy was recognized as a psychiatric condition, often classified as a form of melancholy or mania.
Oribasius on lycanthropy: The werewolf mental disorder in Byzantine medicine
The prominent Byzantine physician Oribasius provided a detailed description of lycanthropy—what we might call the “werewolf” disorder—in his medical compilation Synagogae Medicae:
“Persons affected by lycanthropy go out at night and wander among the tombs. You can recognize them by the following signs: they are pale, with dry, dull, and hollow eyes, without tears; the tongue is extremely dry, without saliva. They are very thirsty, and their legs often bear scars from frequent stumbling. You must know that lycanthropy is a type of melancholy that should be treated by bloodletting until fainting, accompanied by an appropriate diet and baths with sweet water. Purgation with the hiera of colocynth must be applied two or three times, followed by the viper theriaca and other remedies for melancholy. When the disease is approaching, sedate the patient using wet compresses, administration of opium, and rubbing the ears and nostrils—a somniferous method.”
Paul of Aegina (c. 625–690 AD), also a Byzantine physician, in his work On Medicine, also classifies lycanthropy among the types of melancholy and recommends bloodletting as a treatment:
“Those laboring under lycanthropy go out at night imitating wolves in all things and linger about sepulchres until morning. You may recognize them by these marks: they are pale, their vision feeble, eyes dry, tongue very dry, and saliva flow stopped; yet they are thirsty, and their legs have incurable ulcerations from frequent falls. Such are the marks of the disease. You must know that lycanthropy is a species of melancholy which you may cure at the time of the attack by opening a vein and abstracting blood to fainting, along with a wholesome diet. Let the patient use baths of sweet water and then milk-whey for three days, and purge with the hiera from colocynth two or three times. After the purgings, use viper theriaca and administer the remedies mentioned for melancholy when the disease is already formed. Apply soporific embrocations and rub the nostrils with opium when the patient is about to rest.”
Symptoms of the werewolf mental disorder
While exceedingly rare, some individuals genuinely believe they are turning into a werewolf, claiming to see their teeth and hair grow longer when they look in the mirror. Of course, these frightening transformations exist only in the mind.
More observable symptoms of clinical lycanthropy include making growling or howling noises, imitating other animal sounds, craving or eating raw meat, or moving on all fours. People with this disorder sometimes report moments of awareness when they recognize they are human but can recall feeling fully like an animal during episodes. In some cases, individuals believe they are transforming into animals other than wolves. Certain people who suffer from this disorder may believe people around them are also becoming animals or even other creatures.
Some experts link clinical lycanthropy to delusional misidentification syndromes (DMS), a group of disorders in which individuals fail to recognize familiar objects or believe they have transformed. Other experts suggest it may be a culture-bound syndrome, where mental illness or unusual behaviors are influenced by cultural norms and surroundings.
Clinical lycanthropy may arise from a combination of neuropsychiatric disorders, social and cultural factors, and physical conditions, and causes often vary from person to person. Those affected often see wolves as a delusional symbol of evil, punishment, or demonic possession. In other cases, wolves are interpreted as strong or noble creatures.
Treatment is highly individualized. Doctors may prescribe antidepressants or mood-stabilizing medications for underlying depression or mania, as well as antipsychotic medications. In most cases, symptoms of lycanthropy improve over time or resolve completely.
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