General Manager, CSA Strategy and Business Development, Microsoft Corporation
Kostas Mallios is at the forefront of technology’s latest journey, creating new paths for software and services across the digital landscape. At Microsoft, Kostas works with emerging technologies and business models to find ways to make new ideas land outside of the lab. In his current role as General Manager of CSA Strategy and Business Development, he drives strategy, business development and M&A across several initiatives as a direct report to Microsoft’s Chief Software Architect.
Since joining Microsoft in 1996, Kostas has held a variety of positions. Most recently, Kostas led the Rich Media Group and Labs which focused on building transformative media experiences across the Microsoft ecosystem and reported to the corporate CTO as Chief of Staff and General Manager.
As Director of Venture Integration, Kostas drove acquisition integration for 14 deals totaling over $3.5B. He was a business leader in the formation of the Business Solutions division by serving on the core strategy and execution team for the Great Plains acquisition and leading the global integration of Navision.
Prior to his M&A work, Kostas was the Director in the Enterprise Program Management group which developed joint product and business opportunities with Microsoft’s strategic ISV partners, including SAP. Kostas’ career at Microsoft started in Product Marketing with the Developer Division. Before Microsoft, Kostas held various senior positions in publishing, consulting and services industries. Most memorably, Kostas spent 6 years professionally photographing and interviewing top Rock musicians.
Kostas is a graduate of Siena College with a BS in Marketing Management and has received his MBA in Management and Technology from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Kostas and his wife Kristi share their life with their daughters Alexandra and Kassiani. He is an avid photographer, sailor and hiker.
A violent altercation took place on Sunday morning in Athens. Credit: Jebulon, Wikimedia Commons, CC0-1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication
A violent altercation between two young men took place outside a popular nightclub in Marousi, Athens in the early hours of Sunday morning at around 03:30 AM EEST (00:30 UTC).
The altercation, unfortunately, ended in tragedy as one of the involved young men tragically lost his life soon after. The victim was a 23-year-old man, however, he was not the only one. A 26-year-old man has also been seriously injured in the event.
According to reports from Greece’s public broadcaster ERT, who are quoting unverified police sources, the two men engaged in a heated argument as they were leaving the nightclub. However, no clear reason or motive has been established as of yet. This altercation quickly escalated into a physical confrontation. During the altercation, gunshots were fired, and a knife was allegedly used, as the 23-year-old was found to have sustained knife wounds.
Emergency services, including ambulances from Greece’s EKAB service, were promptly dispatched and rushed to the scene. Upon arrival, the police officers and paramedics discovered the 23-year-old man bleeding from a neck wound, likely caused by a knife.
Additionally, a bullet as well as a 22-caliber pistol were found nearby, left in a flower pot. Despite every possible effort conducted to save his life, the young man succumbed to his injuries during transport to Athens‘ Red Cross hospital.
Meanwhile, the 26-year-old man who was also found on the scene with a serious abdominal injury was rushed to the hospital too. His injuries were possibly from a gunshot wound. The man is currently receiving treatment for his injuries.
Greek police (ELAS) have now launched an investigation into the incident, trying to determine the motive behind this violent confrontation and to identify any additional individuals who may have been involved.
Authorities are urging anyone with information related to this case that took place in Marousi, Athens to come forward and assist with the ongoing investigation.
Gun Violence in Athens: A Concerning Trend
While Greece has been historically known for having a relatively low rate of gun violence compared to other Western nations, recent data suggests that the country, and particularly Athens is experiencing a noticeable increase in firearm-related incidents.
Approximately two months ago, in February 2024, four people died during a shooting incident at a Greek shipping company in the southern Athens suburb of Glyfada.
The gunman, who was a former employee of the shipping company, entered the building and opened fire on employees, resulting in the deaths of three individuals before turning the gun on himself.
The perpetrator was later identified as a 70-year-old Egyptian national who was indeed working for the company, however, some reports at the time suggested that he had been terminated from his position at the firm.
April 28 is Palm Sunday according to the Orthodox Christian calendar and Greeks across the country flocked to their churches to attend beautiful and moving church services.
Thousands of devoted Christians across the nation went to commemorate the triumphal entry of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem.
This unique feast for the Christian faith is always one of the most joyous of the year and marks the beginning of the Orthodox Holy Week that leads up to Easter Sunday, a week later.
From small chapels and churches to impressive Cathedrals and from the mainland to the islands, the faithful gathered holding beautiful crosses that had been woven from palm fronds.
A key moment of the Orthodox Palm Sunday service in every church is the Blessing and Distribution of the Palms, with a special prayer that is always read over the basket of crosses placed before the icon of Christ.
A series of beautiful age-old traditions and customs surround Palm Sunday in Greece, with every place having its own little piece to place in the puzzle of customs for that day. Although it falls during the solemn period of Lent, the Greek Orthodox Church in particular allows the consumption of fish, oil, and wine on this important day. However, the faithful need to continue abstaining from products such as dairy, eggs, chicken, and red meat.
Many families gather for a traditional seafood meal, often the classic dish of fried cod with garlic mash called ”bakaliaros skordalia”.
In some other regions, people use the blessed palm crosses that they receive from their church to decorate their homes as well as boats, and even their animals and pets to ensure blessings and protection. Children may also weave the palms into different shapes like crosses, fish, or wreaths depending on the local tradition.
Another beautiful example of a Palm Sunday tradition comes from the Ionian island of Corfu, where a large procession with a marching band carries the relics of the island’s patron Saint Spyridon. The Corfiots do that to commemorate the deliverance from a past plague that, according to legend, happened after the intervention of the island’s patron saint.
This uniquely joyous atmosphere in churches is also palpable as beautiful hymns that glorify Christ – such as the “Vanquisher of Death” – are resounded in the temples.
The Story Behind Palm Sunday
According to the Bible, the entry of Jesus into the ancient holy city of Jerusalem took place just a few days before he was betrayed at the Last Supper, and is deemed to have marked the beginning of Christ’s Passion, or the events leading up to his suffering and eventual death on the cross.
Although the circumstances leading up to Christ’s arrival in Jerusalem differ somewhat in each of the Gospels, all describe the entrance of Jesus into the city as a joyous event, as citizens gathered around him and proclaimed him to be the Lord.
In ancient Greece, temples were an important part of daily life and served as monuments dedicated to the beloved gods and goddesses. Many important ancient temples are located in Greece itself, as well as in other countries, such as Italy, which were then part of the wider ancient Greek world.
Let’s take a look at the ten Greek temples that you cannot miss
Parthenon, Acropolis
The Parthenon, located on the top of the Acropolis, is dedicated to Athena, the goddess of wisdom and the patron goddess of Athens. The Parthenon was built in the mid-5th century BC and was originally constructed to replace an older temple that was destroyed by the Persians. The statue of Athena which originally stood in the temple was made from ivory, silver, and gold but was later stolen and destroyed.
The Valley of the Temples, which is located in Sicily, Italy, has some of the most outstanding examples of Greek architecture. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and includes temples dedicated to Concordia, Juno, and Heracles.
Temple of Concordia – Agrigento, Italy. Credit: Public Domain
Temple of Hephaestus
The Temple of Hephaestus, dedicated to the god of metalworking and craftsmanship, is located in Athens, Greece. The temple was designed by Ictinus, one of the Parthenon’s architects. The Temple of Hephaestus is the best-preserved ancient Greek temple in the world.
Paestum, an ancient Greek city located in southern Italy, contains three well-preserved Greek temples. Two of the three were dedicated to Hera, the goddess of marriage and childbirth while the third one, located away from the temples of Hera, was dedicated to Athena.
The temple is situated in the northwestern part of Sicily, Italy. The Doric Temple of Segesta was constructed in the 5th century BC. However, it appears that the temple was never actually finished, as tabs that might have been used as lifting blocks still remain in the blocks of the base.
The Temple of Apollo Epicurius is located in the Peloponnese in southern Greece on the archeological site Bassae. It is not a typical example of an ancient Greek temple, as it is aligned north-south rather than the standard east-west due to the limited space on the steep mountain. The temple is 1,131 meters above sea level on the slopes of Kotylion Mountain.
The Erechtheum, located on the northern side of the Acropolis in Athens, is dedicated to the Greek hero Erichthonius. The most famous aspect of the temple is the part supported by the six Caryatids.
Erechtheum Acropolis, Athens. Credit: Public Domain
Temple of Zeus in Cyrene
The Temple of Zeus in Cyrene is located in Libya and was built in the 5th century BC. The temple has been destroyed and re-built multiple times. It was destroyed in 115 AD during a Jewish rebellion and restored five years later under Roman order. The temple was again destroyed by an earthquake in 365 AD and restored in the contemporary era by British and Italian archeologists.
The Temple of Poseidon is situated in Sounion on the tip of the Attica peninsula and is surrounded by sea. It is in many ways similar to the Temple of Hephaestus, suggesting that it was possibly built by the same architect.
The Temple of Olympian Zeus, located in central Athens, is a colossal ruined temple that was dedicated to Zeus. Its construction began in the 6th century BC but was not completed until the 2nd century AD. It was considered the largest and most impressive temple in Greece, but today, only a fragment remains.
The Greek Orthodox monastery at Grottaferrata Abbazia. Credit:lepacifique’, CC BY 2.0/Wikipedia
A Greek Orthodox monastery in Italy founded more than one thousand years ago, is thriving just south of Rome in the epicenter of Catholicism.
The Orthodox monastery is a remnant of ten monks belonging to the Byzantine rite Basilian order, loyal to the Pope but clinging to their traditional Greek liturgies against all odds while keeping the faith alive and managing to thrive as book restorers in their monastery.
Part of a 1600-year-old order established by St. Basil in the year 356, the men of the Grottaferrata Monastery still follow the ascetic pattern of prayer and work that the Byzantine saint drew up so many centuries ago.
The delicate Italianate architecture and surroundings of the monastery, including an elegant Campanile, or bell tower, belie the Greek roots of their faith. A monk called St. Nilus founded the abbey more than one thousand years ago, in 1004, decades before the fateful Great Schism between Eastern and Western Christianity in 1054.
St. Nilus, born in Rossano, in Calabria, came from a Greek family, according to the monastery’s historical records. At that time, Calabria was under Byzantine rule and was truly Greek in language, culture, and spiritual and liturgical tradition.
The saint had already founded several monasteries in Calabria and in Campania. Though a humble man, he was held in high esteem by princes, emperors, and popes.
The monks in his order had been attracted by the wonderful ruins of a Roman villa on the Tuscolo hills and by a low four-sided building dating back to the Republican era of Rome, which had been adapted as a Christian oratory since the 5th century.
St. Bartholomaeus with other monks worked for twenty years building the Church, utilizing the material which had been abandoned in the Roman villa, namely pillars and pieces of marble, sculptured eaves, and peperino blocks. The church was completed in 1024 and was beautifully decorated with marble, mosaics, and paintings.
Greek Orthodox Monastery nears 1,000-year anniversary of its founding in Italy
Pope John XIX consecrated the Greek monastery on December 17th, 1024, dedicating it to the ‘Mother of God’ while the monks sang Greek hymns that Brother Bartholomaeus (later Saint Bartholomaeus) himself had composed for the occasion. The imposing medieval battlements around the hilltop town just south of the city of Rome harken back to the internecine warfare common between the great Italian cities in those times.
Last year, Reuters interviewed the brothers who remain at the monastery, who doggedly maintain their lifestyle which features constant prayer along with the work that feeds them and allows them to live communally.
Brother Claudio Corsaro, a man in his late twenties, abandoned a promising career as an opera singer to become a monk at Grottaferata. He sings now for the glory of God in the monastery’s chapel during services.
“I was only six years old when I felt the Lord for the first time but I fully realized my vocation many years later, when I had already started my singing career,” he told interviewers while strolling between olive trees on the monastery grounds.
Corsaro and his monastic brothers could easily be taken for Greek Orthodox monks since they dress in the habit of Orthodox churchmen, including flowing black robes and the traditional flat-topped hat, or kalimavkion.
Living on the edge in the modern world
Devoted to a life of prayer and work, the ten monks, aged between 23 and 89, are among Italy’s last remaining Byzantine-rite Basilian religions. Employment in such endeavors as book restoration and olive growing helps them keep body and soul together, but they are living on the edge, having so few members to keep their way of life alive into the future.
In 1054 when the Great Schism occurred, the Grottaferrata monks chose to remain faithful to the Pope in Rome rather than switch allegiance to the newly established Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople, now Istanbul.
However, they still continue to worship in the Eastern, Byzantine rite, including celebrating the Divine Liturgy in ancient Greek. Of course, most Catholics in the West say the mass in their local languages, and occasionally in Latin.
Their daily regimen begins at 5:30 AM with individual prayer followed by communal worship. Then, there is always work in the vegetable garden or olive groves, painting icons, studying, and doing chores.
A typical day for the monks upon the completion of early prayers, breakfast, and work, is followed by rest, the saying of vespers, more work, more prayer, and then an early bedtime.
Monks restore DaVinci’s priceless Notebook
A special area of the monastery is devoted to the exquisite art of book restoration. Since 1931, the Badia Greca in Grottaferrata has been the home of the Laboratory for the Restoration of Ancient Books and Manuscripts, the first scientifically-based laboratory founded by the Italian Ministry of National Education.
Situated in a large room that was once an old monastic guest room, the laboratory plays a vital role, with its work based both on scientific research and its unique technical skills paired with refined craftsmanship.
One of its most noted accomplishments was the discovery of the 6th to 7th-century Homily of St. Ephrem of Syria, who died in 373, found in a 17th-century volume from Italy’s Vallicelliana Library that the workshop was restoring.
Other accomplishments include the restoration of the 12th-century parchment manuscript of the Typikon from Càsole, which was in a serious condition following a fire; an Evangeliarium graecum from the Treasure of St. Mark from St. Mark Library in Venice, which had been badly damaged by mildew; and three 11th to 12th-century parchment scrolls of Exultet from the town of Troia in Puglia.
By far the most prestigious restoration work, however, is considered to be the over one thousand papers from the Codex Atlanticus by Leonardo da Vinci, comprising his fanciful yet prescient drawings of machines, as well as his studies on geometry, calculations, and even his personal notes.
The priceless manuscript was in a deteriorated condition because after four centuries insects and moths had wrought great damage. Mold and oxidation had begun to grow on the surface of its pages.
The monastery’s expert restorers first unglued the papers and then undertook a major cleaning and restoration of the many worm holes in the parchment. The many tears and binding failures were also carefully mended.
Monastery’s connection to ethnic Greek community in Southern Italy
Most of the monks who live at Grottaferrata have connections to tiny ethnic Greek or Albanian communities in southern Italy, which are amazingly still populated by descendants of early settlers from the East.
They are the very last monks of the Italo-Albanian tradition to follow the Rule of St. Basil.
Brother Filippo Pecoraro, 23, who was raised in an Italo-Albanian family in Sicily, is descended from the Arbereshe people, who fled the Ottoman invasions of the Balkans between the 14th and 18th centuries.
“I grew up in an environment very close to the Church and this life choice was inside me,” Pecoraro explained to interviewers.
However, the young age of some of the newer monks will not forestall the decline of the monastery unless it attracts more young men to its ranks soon. As recently as the 1950s, Grottaferrata was home to around eighty monks.
Nonetheless, Corsaro is steadfast in his belief that preserving the ancient tradition is his sacred calling, and he does not fear the future.
“I feel like someone the Lord has chosen among the few to continue this responsibility and I thank God for the grace he has given me to carry out this task,” he said.
During the millennial celebration of the Abbey, which took place from 2004 to 2005, an enormous exhibition showcasing the restoration work carried out by the monastery’s Ancient Book Laboratory, including their restored manuscripts, was opened to the public.
The monastery has a fascinating website, relating its history and describing its current work, and showcasing the beautiful mosaics of its church interiors, which can be explored by clicking here.
Depiction of the Varangian Guard,the Vikings of the Byzantine Empire. Image: Joannis Scylitza, 12th century. Credit: Public domain
The Vikings were a seafaring people from Scandinavia. They most famously raided in and around the British Isles and the western coasts of Europe. However, what many people do not know is that they were active much further east, too.
The Vikings played a surprising yet significant role in the Byzantine Empire, where they formed the Varangian Guard. What do we know about the Varangian Guard, the Vikings of the Byzantine Empire?
The Origin of the Varangians
The Varangians were Vikings from Sweden. In the ninth century, a group of them settled in Northwest Russia, where the city of Novgorod is located today. A man named Rurik was the legendary leader of this group. He was referred to as the Rus’, and the settlement, established in the year 862 according to a twelfth-century chronicle, was likewise referred to as such.
From Novgorod, the Varangians went on south towards the Black Sea. In addition to Russia, they settled in modern-day Belarus and Ukraine. Over time, they began to dominate the trade passing through that area. This was a critical position of commercial power. There was much trade that passed from the Muslim territories of the east to the Byzantine Empire of the west.
At times, there were military conflicts between the Varangians and the Byzantine Empire. In the tenth century in the year 907, the Varangians attacked Constantinople itself. The siege does not appear to have been particularly bloody, and it ended in a peace treaty between the two sides.
Varangian Guard: the Viking mercenaries of the Byzantine Empire
As a result of this and other peace treaties with the Byzantine Empire, Varangians from the Rus’ people received the right to serve in the Empire. Perhaps because it brought the prospect of greater wealth and security, many Varangians chose to do just that. This formed what is now known as the Varangian Guard.
The Varangian Guard was thus a group of Viking mercenaries serving in the Byzantine Empire. From the tenth century onwards, more and more Varangians began associating themselves with the Byzantine emperor. Many of them came directly from the Rus’ people living north of the Black Sea, but there were also many immigrants directly from Sweden.
The Varangian Guard was highly valued by the Byzantine emperor. Because they were foreigners to the Empire, they were far less likely to get involved in political or national intrigues. For this reason, members of the Varangian Guard were often favored as personal bodyguards for emperors, similar to the Praetorian Guard of previous centuries. In addition, they also participated in open warfare against enemies of the Empire.
The Function of the Varangian Guard
The Varangian Guard swore utter allegiance to the emperor. They vowed to protect him at all costs as needed. Due to their culture, the people of Scandinavia, including the Anglo-Saxons, were renowned for their loyalty. They had an incredible reputation for sticking to their oaths. Therefore, the emperor could trust them with his very own life.
Beyond simply acting as guards for the emperor, the Varangians also performed ceremonial duties within Constantinople. In times of political unrest or conspiracies, they would act as a kind of special police force.
In general, Vikings were famous for their ferocity in warfare. This aspect of the Varangians was not lost on Byzantine emperors. If a battle got to be too much for the Empire’s own forces, they would send in the Varangian Guard to provide support.
The famous Scandinavian berserkers gave the Varangian Guard a fierce reputation in battle. Supposedly, they fought like fearsome beasts and took no note at all of their wounds or pain. The broad-bladed Dane axe was their weapon of choice.
The History of the Guard
Although originally composed of only Vikings from Scandinavia, Anglo-Saxons later joined the Varangian Guard in the eleventh century. This was after the Norman conquest of England in 1066. This conquest drove out many of the Anglo-Saxons who had been living there. They traveled for new prospects, and this led them to the Byzantine Empire. There, they joined the Vikings in the Varangian Guard.
The Guard played a key role in a number of vital battles. For example, in the eleventh century, the Lombards and Normans attempted to drive the Byzantine Empire out of Southern Italy. In response, the Byzantine Emperor sent a body of troops taken from the Varangian Guard to Italy. During the resulting Battle of Cannae, the Varangians helped the Empire to achieve a decisive victory.
The Varangian Guard continued to protect the Empire, especially the capital, Constantinople, throughout the thirteenth century. However, after the middle of that century, they disappeared from the written record. They last appear escorting a prisoner of war to Nicaea in 1259. No one is aware of what happened to them from that point on.
The triumphal entry into Jerusalem as depicted on a fresco in an Eastern Orthodox church. Credit: Petar Milošević/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 4.0
Palm Sunday marks the last Sunday before Easter and signals the beginning of Holy Week, an important period of prayer and reflection for Christians before the Resurrection of Jesus.
The feast celebrates Christ’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem, an event mentioned in all four of the Gospels.
According to biblical sources, Jesus’s entry into the ancient holy city took place just a few days before he was betrayed at the Last Supper, and is deemed to have marked the beginning of Christ’s Passion, or the events leading up to his suffering and eventual death on the cross.
Jesus rode into Jerusalem just days after Lazarus was risen from the dead
Although the circumstances leading up to Christ’s arrival in Jerusalem differ somewhat in each of the Gospels, all describe Jesus’ entry into the city as a joyous event, as citizens gathered around him and proclaimed him to be the Lord.
In each Gospel, Jesus rides into the city on a donkey, which, compared to the horse, is an animal of peace, not war. This signals that Jesus is king—but a holy king of peace rather than an earthly king of war.
The people of Jerusalem laid down their robes, as well as palm fronds, on the road, welcoming Christ into the city as a royal.
In the Gospel of John, Jesus had just raised Lazarus from the dead only a few days prior, and word of the miraculous event had already spread throughout Jerusalem, where crowds eagerly awaited the arrival of Christ in awe.
In the subsequent Gospels, Christ enters the city from the Mount of Olives, and there is no mention of Lazarus during the event.
As the Greek Orthodox commemorate the Feast of Lazarus, or Lazarus Saturday, just one day before, it is clear that John’s telling of Christ’s entry into Jerusalem is the accepted version for Palm Sunday by the Church.
In many parts of Greece and Cyprus, people commonly bake sweet bread or cookies shaped like Lazarus wrapped in his funerary bandages, called lazarakia, for Lazarus Sunday.
Palm Sunday Liturgy in Greece
Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem, as depicted in a 12th century fresco on a church in Spain. Credit: Public domain
Palm Sunday is largely considered a joyous, celebratory feast, as the faithful await Jesus’ own arrival by way of the Resurrection on Easter Sunday.
Much like the people of Jerusalem, Christians celebrate the coming arrival of Christ by praising him as Savior.
Similar to other branches of Christianity, Orthodox celebrations of Palm Sunday include the distribution of palm branches that have been blessed and formed into the shape of a cross.
Traditionally, the branches are arranged into the shape of a cross on Lazarus Saturday, the day before, in preparation for the event.
Believers usually keep the blessed palm branches in their homes until the following year.
In the Western Church, palm branches distributed the previous year are returned to the church the following year just before Lent so that they may be incinerated.
The ashes produced are then used on Ash Wednesday to mark the forehead of believers.
Mosaic depicting a hoplomachus (right) gladiator against a Thraex. Credit: Carole Raddato / CC BY-SA 2.0 / Wikimedia Commons
For nearly seven centuries, the Romans enjoyed armed contests between gladiators in the arena. During these contests, condemned men would fight for the entertainment of the crowds, sometimes to the death.
Gladiators were assigned to different armature (classes) according to their equipment and fighting style. Spectators were familiar with these classes and would have instantly recognized what types of gladiators were competing when they entered the arena. Many of these classes were inspired by the enemies of Rome and competed with the arms, armor, and martial styles of various ethnic groups and regions.
Gladiator styles inspired by the Gauls, Samnites, and Thracians were among the most ubiquitous in the arena, but there was also a class of gladiators based on the traditional ancient Greek form of fighting. The hoplomachus (plural: hoplomachii) was a Roman gladiator armed to imitate an ancient Greek hoplite.
Mosaic depicting gladiatorial combat, c. 200 AD. A hoplomachus can be seen in the center-left. Credit: Livius.org / Wikimedia Commons
The hoplomachii: Roman gladiators fighting in the ancient Greek style
The primary armament of the hoplomachus consisted of a spear (hasta) and a short sword or dagger wielded in the left hand, accompanied by a small round shield.
This bronze shield resembled that used by the Greek hoplite, although a typical aspides shield used by a hoplite would have been larger for use in the phalanx formation. The smaller shield offered less protection but it was easier to maneuver and could be used more offensively by the gladiator to ram it into his opponent.
For armor, the hoplomachus would don a helmet, a manica on the right arm, a subligaculum (loincloth), substantial padding on the legs, and high greaves extending to mid-thigh.
The hoplomachus was often pitted against the murmillo, who bore the sword and shield typical of the Roman legionary. In this way, certain gladiatorial contests mimicked the wars fought between Rome and her Greek enemies. However, a hoplomachus would sometimes face off against another class of gladiator, most often the Thraex.
3rd century AD Roman fresco depicting a contest between a hoplomachus (left) and a murmillo (right). Credit: Carole Raddato / CC BY-SA 2.0 / Wikimedia Commons
Greeks worked with gladiators as trainers and physicians
Cultural exchange between the Greek and Roman worlds was extensive and the Romans were keen to make use of Greek expertise for the care and instruction of their gladiators.
According to works by Lucius Flavius Philostratus – an Athenian Greek philosopher and Roman citizen alive in the second and third centuries AD -, gladiators adopted a four-day training regime from Greek trainers called the tetras.
The tetras consisted of a preparation phase on the first day, an all-out training phase on the second day, relaxation on the third day, and moderate to intense exercise on the fourth day.
Gladiators after a contest. Credit: José Moreno Carbonero / Public domain / Wikimedia Commons
Greek physicians were also relied upon to treat the wounds sustained by gladiators. In fact, the most comprehensive primary source on medical care for gladiators and their diets comes from Galen, a Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher, who lived and died between 129 and 216 AD.
In 167 AD, at the age of twenty-eight, Galen returned to his native city of Pergamon to work as a physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia. According to the historian of medicine, Vivian Nutton, only two gladiators died when Galen was operating in Pergamon, whereas sixty had been killed during the tenure of his predecessor.
Galen wrote about the diet of gladiators, although he reckoned their diet of barley and a pudding made of mashed beans was suboptimal. Galen argued that this diet made the gladiators fat and flabby rather than strong and lean. The gladiators were probably fed this way because it was cheap. They were sometimes called hordearii, meaning “eaters of barley.”
AI impression of Aristoxenus of Tarentum. Credit: DALLE for the Greek Reporter
Aristoxenus of Tarentum is a relatively unknown Greek peripatetic philosopher who made groundbreaking contributions to the fields of music theory and rhythm, shaping ancient Greek music profoundly.
Even though he is considered to be the first musicologist in the Western tradition, his work and personality are not widely known and not many people are aware of his impressive life and contributions in this field.
The Life and Works of Aristoxenus
Aristoxenus was born in the Greek colony of Tarentum in southern Italy (Magna Graecia) around 375 BC. He was the son of a musician, something that influenced him fundamentally. As he was growing up, Aristoxenus studied music theory and philosophy in Athens, where he moved to get the best possible education, as Athens was a major educational center at the time. He was a pupil of the famous philosophers Xenophilus the Pythagorean and more importantly, Aristotle, who played a foundationally shaping role in his life.
Aristoxenus loved to write his ideas and soon became a prolific writer. It is said that throughout his life he completed a jaw-dropping 450 –or even more– works on a wide variety of topics including music, philosophy, and ethics, among many others.
Unfortunately, most of these works have been lost through time or haven’t been discovered yet. Only tiny fragments of his writings survive today, but they are enough to give us a glimpse into the world of Aristoxenus’ ideas. His most important surviving work is the ‘Elements of Harmony’, which is an incomplete musical treatise. This surviving piece is the fundamental source of our knowledge of ancient Greek music to this day, as it gives us valuable information about the way ancient Greeks approached music.
How Aristoxenus Shaped Ancient Greek Music
In direct contrast to other, earlier Pythagorean theorists who fundamentally based their music theory on mathematical ratios, Aristoxenus argued that the notes of musical scales should be seen and judged by the ear of the listener and those who enjoy listening to this melody and not by numbers. This is why he developed a truly influential theory of musical scales, as well as intervals, rhythm, and melody that was grounded in the way music was perceived and performed, rather than abstract theories that involved mathematics.
Furthermore, Aristoxenus introduced several other essential concepts, including the idea that musical sound proceeds by distinct steps in pitch, as well as the idea that the first element of music is the note above anything else. He then described different musical scales and modes, the ranges of the human voice, and a number of techniques of modulation between musical keys.
His work, ”Elements of Rhythm”, was indeed the first systematic treatment of musical metre and rhythm in the West, making his contribution to music foundational and tremendously important.
A modern imagining of the appearance of Aristoxenus. Credit: Guglielmo Morghen, Wikimedia-Commons, Public Domain
The Philosophical Approach of Aristoxenus
Aristoxenus, however, was not just a musician. As a philosopher, he followed a much more empirical approach, influenced, of course, by his teacher Aristotle. Aristoxenus strongly believed that music theory should be primarily based on real musical practice as judged by trained ears, not just abstract mathematics, an idea that had deep philosophical roots in its core.
This put Aristoxenus in opposition to the Pythagoreans of the time, who saw music as essentially mathematical and not empirical. For Aristoxenus, however, music was both an art and a science. It was much more than numbers or random sounds put together. It required both reason and perception to be properly understood.
Aristoxenus’ Influence on Ancient Greek Music
Based on the evidence we have on Aristoxenus, we can see that he had a seminal yet enormous influence on later music theorists in the ancient Greek world and beyond, as he dealt with elements that not many people had done before him. His works were being studied for centuries by many and his concepts shaped the later musical tradition of several regions of the ancient world in Greece and beyond.
A notable example would be the Roman architect Vitruvius, who relied heavily on Aristoxenus in his discussion of music. Additionally, in the Middle Ages, scholars like Boethius helped transmit the ideas of Aristoxenus to medieval Europe, spreading his work even further.
Today, although not known by many, Aristoxenus is recognized as a pioneering figure. He was the first to study music in a much more systematic, scientific way than his predecessors. He is also considered the originator of the fields of musicology, music theory, and music psychology in the West.
Even though only small fragments remain, his works do provide us with an invaluable insight into ancient Greek music and the origins of the Western musical tradition as a whole.
A new study, featured in the journal “Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences,” brings to light important discoveries on an ancient Roman shipwreck found near Mallorca, one of Spain’s Balearic Islands.
Situated only 65 meters away from a well-visited beach close to Palma, Mallorca’s capital, this shipwreck has caught the interest of many due to its preservation and interesting cargo.
A group of archaeologists and researchers conducted the study using a detailed analytical method to uncover the secrets behind the shipwreck’s origin, contents, and importance.
They used various techniques such as petrographic analysis, archaeozoology, residue analysis, and the examination of wood and plant remains to thoroughly investigate the site, according to “Archaeology” magazine.
Amphora named ‘Ses Fontanelles I’ found in the wreck
Inside the ship’s cargo area, researchers discovered a collection of ceramic objects, mainly amphorae, which were commonly used to store and move different items.
A significant discovery from the study is the recognition of a new kind of amphora, called Ses Fontanelles I, only found in this wreck. The newly identified amphora is larger and heavier than others, and it was mainly used for transporting plant oil.
The recovered amphorae from the shipwreck have painted inscriptions called tituli picti, which give important details about where the items came from, what they were, and who owned them.
These inscriptions tell us that the makers of the amphorae were Ausonius et Alunni, and they also reveal that the cargo contained fish sauce, olive oil, and wine.
During the Late Roman era, fish sauce, called liquamen flos, was a popular flavor enhancer, different from the more commonly known garum.
The analysis suggests that this fish sauce was mainly made from anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus), with some sardines occasionally mixed in.
Materials used in the construction of cargo
Residue analysis of the amphorae showed signs of grape derivatives, possibly used to add flavor or preserve the contents. Additionally, traces of animal products were found, adding to the complexity of the cargo.
The materials used to build the ship’s hull were carefully examined. Pine was used for the main parts, while harder types of wood like juniper, olive, and laurel were used for assembly. Vine branches and other plants were used as filler and to protect the cargo during the voyage.
Based on the research, it’s likely that the ship set sail from the Cartagena area in southeastern Spain, traveling along the trade routes of the Western Mediterranean. This thought is supported by the petrographic analysis of the amphorae, which suggests a link to the Cartagena region.
Turkish President Erdogan. Photo credit: Mikhail Klimentyev, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 4.0
Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan announced on Friday that he is postponing his scheduled meeting with US President Joe Biden at the White House.
This was initially planned to take place on May 9. The postponement occurred due to ”changes in his schedule”, Turkish officials said.
This development is significant for the bilateral relations between Washington and Ankara. It comes amidst continuing tensions between the two NATO allies over a wide range of issues, particularly Turkey’s stance on the Israel-Hamas conflict.
Erdogan has been a particularly loud and vocal critic of the current actions of Israel in Gaza. On numerous occasions, he has been describing them as “war crimes” bordering on “genocide”. ”Israel, we will proclaim you as a war criminal to the world,” Erdogan had said in late 2023, causing a strong reaction from Tel Aviv.
He has also openly defended Hamas, which is considered a terrorist organization by Israel, the US, and the EU. Erdogan has said in the past that Hamas is a group “waging a battle to protect its lands and people”.
Turkey also hosted Hamas chief Ismail Haniyeh recently, something that was the tipping point for the postponement of the upcoming visit to the US.
NEW: Turkey's Erdogan is no longer coming to the White House on May 9… Public differences over Gaza, lack of clarity on visit itself seen behind rescheduling: https://t.co/HzpDmT3n4b
In response to the ongoing conflict in Gaza, Turkey and Israel have both announced on many occasions reciprocal trade restrictions on each other. Turkey imposed immediate export restrictions on 54 product types to Israel a few weeks ago, while Israel is reportedly preparing to impose a ban on Turkish products too. It is worth noting that Turkish exports to Israel amounted to $5.4 billion in 2023.
The postponement of Erdogan’s visit to the White House also comes amid strained relations between Turkey and Greece, another strategic US ally within the NATO alliance. However, bilateral relations between Athens and Ankara have shown signs of improvement since las year.
Turkey’s Stance on Greece
In recent months, a series of diplomatic gestures and high-level meetings have signaled a thaw in Greek-Turkish relations. Following Greece’s rapid assistance to Turkey after the devastating earthquake of early 2023, both the public mood and the political priorities of the leadership of the two nations changed very quickly.
The Turkish people were moved not only by the amount of humanitarian aid that ordinary Greeks sent to Turkey but also by the efforts of the Greek rescuers who rushed to the epicenter of the destruction, saving lives.
This shift in the public mood was sealed by following meetings between Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and the Greek Premier Kyriakos Mitsotakis. The two men signed a friendship declaration between Greece and Turkey in Athens last December, in a symbolic move that confirms the warming of relations between the two nations.
The declaration committed both countries ”to refrain from any statement, initiative, or act likely to undermine or discredit the letter and spirit of this Declaration or endanger the maintenance of peace and stability in their region”
This recent improvement in Greek-Turkish relations can be attributed to many external and internal factors, apart from the ”diplomacy of the earthquakes”. Externally, the European Union’s under-the-radar diplomatic efforts pushed primarily Ankara to a more relaxed stance towards Greece.
Germany was at the forefront of this nearly-undercover effort, as Berlin wants Turkey to remain a strategic economic partner of the EU. Additionally, regional security concerns, such as the strategic importance of NATO unity at a time when Russia wages war against Ukraine, also played a crucial role in the recent rapprochement.
As for internal factors that helped the amelioration of the relations, these were mainly the victory of President Erdogan in Turkey’s elections in 2023. This caused a shift in the economic priorities of his government. Because of this and due to a growing recognition of the benefits of cooperation over confrontation, Erdogan chose to ease the tensions between the two nations. The mutual interest in energy exploration and addressing migration issues were crucial factors after all.
