The fugitive Antonia Ilia pictured before she fled Greece. Credit: AMNA
The UK extradited to Athens a former Greek judge who fled jail sentence for money laundering in 2005.
Antonia Ilia had been sentenced unanimously by a five-member criminal appeals court to thirteen years for participating in a criminal network operating at courts in a case that caused shockwaves in Greece and undermined confidence in the judicial system.
She fled Greece in 2005 and lived in England, blocking every attempt to extradite her to Greece to face a jail sentence.
The charges included fraud, money laundering, slandering, and failure to declare her assets for taxation.
She has been on the run since being charged with working with corrupt lawyers to fix the outcomes of trials but was arrested in Brighton, south of London, in May 2011 after the Greek authorities had issued five European warrants against her.
The former Greek judge fights extradition to Greece
She had been teaching French at a local college and insisted that she was not Antonia Ilia but a French citizen. However, police searched her apartment and found her passport and ID, which confirmed that she was the fugitive judge.
The woman’s claim caused a furor during a local court hearing on the Greek extradition request. When asked to confirm her identity in court, the woman said her name was Antonia Jemen, born in the French town of Amiens in March 1963, and that her parents were Constantin and Claire Jemen.
The prosecution, however, presented evidence in court found in the woman’s Brighton apartment that included a Greek ID card, Greek passport, and Greek driver’s license in the name of Antonia Ilia.
The prosecution further submitted documentation from the British police that the fingerprints of Ilia contained in the Interpol arrest warrant were the same as those of the woman arrested.
The woman claimed in court that the documents found in her apartment had possibly been left behind by college students given that, according to her claims, she rented out her living room and one of the bedrooms to students.
She was placed in custody in Holloway prison where she remained for nineteen months. After repeated appeals, she was released in December 2012 under restrictions and the obligation to wear a tracing bracelet.
Among her efforts to avoid extradition, she asked British authorities for political asylum. Ilia has appealed because she is seeking political asylum since she claimed that her life is in danger if she is extradited, and she also stated that the conditions of incarceration in the Greek prison system are inappropriate.
Due to its geostrategic location, Greece has become an invaluable NATO ally. Greek Foreign Minister Georgios Gerapetritis (left) with NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg in Brussels (July 20, 2023). Credit: Greece’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs CC BY-SA 2.0
As NATO celebrates its 75th anniversary, Greece has become an invaluable alliance member in its strategic role, positioned in the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was established on this day in April 1949. Its founding members are Belgium, France, Denmark, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Iceland, Italy, Canada, Luxembourg, Norway, the Netherlands, and Portugal.
The alliance was created in order to provide collective security against the rising Soviet Union threat and block nationalist militarism in Europe.
Greece joined NATO in 1952 three years after a devastating civil war in which the Soviet Union played a crucial covert role. Neighboring Turkey became a member the same year. Since then, eighteen more European countries joined the Alliance, with the last being Sweden, which joined on March 7, 2024. Today, NATO is comprised of 32 allied countries.
The three principal missions of the Alliance are: deterrence and defense, crisis prevention and management, and cooperative security.
The role of Greece in NATO
Fotios Kotzakioulafis, NATO Defense & Security Analyst in Greece, spoke to Greek Reporter about the role of Greece in the Alliance:
“As NATO commemorates its 75th anniversary, Greece is a steadfast member whose commitment to the alliance remains unwavering. Greece’s strategic location at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa underscores its vital role in NATO’s defense architecture, serving as a rampart against emerging security threats in the region.”
NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg has often praised Greece for its role in the sensitive Eastern Mediterranean region. Kotzakioulafis corroborates:
“Through its active participation in NATO missions and operations, Greece demonstrates its dedication to collective security and defense. From contributing troops to peacekeeping efforts in the Balkans to conducting joint exercises with allied forces, Greece is pivotal in promoting stability and cooperation within the alliance.”
At the same time, Greece has benefited from NATO, as the Alliance is instrumental in enhancing the country’s defense capabilities. “NATO has been instrumental in bolstering Greece’s defense capabilities and enhancing interoperability with allied nations,” the Greek analyst said. “Through joint training exercises, intelligence sharing, and defense cooperation initiatives, Greece has been able to modernize its armed forces and effectively respond to evolving security challenges.”
He further added:
“The NATO alliance provides Greece with a crucial framework for defense cooperation, enabling it to effectively address common security threats, including terrorism, cyber-attacks, and regional instability. By leveraging NATO’s collective capabilities and resources, Greece can better protect its territorial integrity and safeguard its national interests.”
“As we reflect on NATO’s 75 years of collective defense, it’s evident that Greece’s membership in the alliance has been vital in ensuring peace and security in the Euro-Atlantic region. Looking ahead, Greece remains committed to upholding NATO’s core values and principles, standing shoulder to shoulder with its allies to confront the challenges of the 21st century.”
How members view NATO
Since its inception, NATO has been interested in how the people of member states view the alliance. The organization runs a public opinion research program to inform decision-making, strategy, and planning. Through nationally representative surveys, NATO tracks respondents’ opinions about each country’s security environment. The alliance derives its legitimacy from the ongoing support of its member countries and their populations.
In a poll conducted among eleven member states in spring 2023, people’s views of NATO were favorable. Across these states, a median of 62 percent have a positive view of NATO, while 31 percent have an unfavorable view of the military alliance.
Opinion poll shows people in Greece see NATO unfavorably. Credit: Pew Research Center
Favorable views of NATO are highest in Poland, where 93 percent of respondents hold a positive view of the defense organization. In the Netherlands, UK, Germany and Italy roughly two-thirds or more have a positive view of the alliance. Among Americans, 62 percent have a favorable view of NATO, compared with 35 percent who hold a negative view. Canadians’ responses were similar.
In France and Hungary, people view NATO in a positive manner. In Spain, over half of the respondents have a favorable view of NATO, as well. Among NATO countries surveyed, Greece is the only one where a majority view the alliance unfavorably.
Even though Sweden was not an alliance member at the time of the survey, as it was awaiting the approval of Hungary and Turkey, the Swedes expressed a very favorable view of NATO.
The findings were uncovered near the Temple of Zeus Hellanios where a 13th-century Byzantine church now stands. Credit: Ministry of Culture
On the the summit of the highest mountain of the Greek island of Aegina a Mycenaean building and dozens of ceramic vessels were uncovered, according to the Greek Ministry of Culture.
The findings on the summit of Mount Ellanio were discovered near the Temple of Zeus Hellanios where a 13th-century Byzantine church now stands.
The Temple was dedicated to Zeus, the most powerful of all gods. Having been erected three generations before the Trojan War, it is the oldest temple ever revealed by archaeological research in all of Europe.
The ruins of the Temple of Zeus reflect the magnificence of the ancient constructions. There remain two huge terraces, some cisterns, and a staircase next to a Hellenistic wall. The temple gives an amazing view of the Saronic Gulf.
A Greek-Swiss archaeological mission is currently conducting excavations on the summit to find traces of the mountain’s prehistoric occupation, in addition to finds associated with the Temple of Zeus Hellanios.
Over thirty ceramic vessels were discovered within the building’s interior. Credit: Ministry of Culture
Mycenaean building and vessels discovered on Aegina
In a press statement issued by the Greek Ministry of Culture, the mission has discovered a Mycenaean building measuring 4.5 by 3 meters, in which they also uncovered over thirty ceramic vessels within the building’s interior.
Based on the form and style of the vessels, the researchers suggest that they date from the decline of the Mycenaean palatial system, a period of destruction between 1200–and 1050 BC.
The vessels are dated between 1200–and 1050 BC. Credit: Ministry of Culture
The cause of the destruction has long been the subject of academic debate, with some theories suggesting a series of natural disasters, or a period of conflict – evidenced by a building program of defenses around major population centers.
As a result of this turmoil, specific regions in mainland Greece witnessed a dramatic population decrease as Mycenaean refugees migrated to Cyprus, the levant, and several of the Greek islands.
According to the archaeologists, the people on Aegina likely settled on the summit as a refuge and for protection, as the mountain was already known to them as a place of worship.
Cooking pots were also discovered. Credit: Ministry of Culture
To understand the surrounding landscape, the mission also conducted a surface survey which revealed traces of human occupation from the prehistoric period until the mid-20th century, including retaining walls, an ancient tower, quarries, rock inscriptions, and several abandoned settlements.
The earliest history of Aegina, Greece
Aegina, according to Herodotus, was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject. Its placement between Attica and the Peloponnesus made it a site of trade even earlier, and its earliest inhabitants allegedly came from Asia Minor.
The most important Early Bronze Age settlement was Kolonna, a stone-built fortified site. The main connections were with the Greek mainland, but there were found also influences from Cyclades and Crete.
Minoan ceramics have been found in contexts of c. 2000 BC. The famous Aegina Treasure, now in the British Museum is estimated to date between 1700 and 1500 BC.
The discovery on the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the last period of Mycenaean art suggests that Mycenaean culture existed in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon.
The anniversary of Greek Independence is a special day for America, too, Biden stressed. Credit: White House
President Biden hosted the Greek Independence Day Reception on Thursday at the White House stressing the strong bonds of friendship between Greece and the United States.
Biden, greeted his Greek-American guests with a speech during which he did not fail to remind everyone once again that his close ties with Greece gave him his “Greek” surname, “Bidenopoulos”.
He referred to the early years of his political career as Senator for Delaware and the contribution of the Greek American community in his rise to power.
“I don’t remember the exact number of votes, but I think all the Greek-Americans in Delaware voted for me. That’s why I got the Greek nickname I’m proud of, ‘Bidenopoulos,’” he said.
In the presence of prominent Greek-Americans and friends of Greece from the political, business and artistic worlds, Biden said the anniversary of Greek Independence is a special day for America, too.
“The fathers of the American nation studied the ancient Greek thinkers; our revolution of 1776 drew inspiration from them. 45 years later, Greek patriots fought for their own independence. That’s why the anniversary of Greek Independence is a special day for America, too. Our countries are connected. We share values, we share inspiration, we share the belief that anything is possible.”
“We believe that anything is possible if we, the people, join forces for the common good. The bonds between us are rooted in history,” the US President said.
“But they are even more alive today, in this very room. Today we keep those ties alive. People in Greece, people in the United States. It is not enough to inherit democracy. We must become its defenders. We must make every generation a champion. We have to be champions,” Biden added.
Elpidophoros thanks Biden on Greek Independence Day Reception
Addressing President Biden Archbishop Elpidophoros of America said “You have long been a close and trusted friend of the Greek-American family, and we consider you to be one of our very own, even from those very early days in Wilmington.”
The head of the Greek Orthodox Church in America hailed Biden’s efforts to defend democracy, championing freedom and the sovereignty of Nations.
“As sons and daughters of the Mother Church of Constantinople, whose longest-serving leader in history, His All-Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew, counts you, Mr. President, as a beloved friend – we thank you for your unwavering support of the purely spiritual mission of our Ecumenical Patriarchate,” Elpidophoros said.
He also thanked him for his commitment to Greece and to Cyprus, and for a “just and peaceful solution to this Island Nation, that has been scarred by a violent invasion and forced division for half a century, a solution that will abide by the international law and a rules-based international order. We are on your side, Mr. President, just as you are on the side of democracy and liberty.”
The proclamation, issued by the White House, commemorated the deep historical bonds between Greece and the US. It highlighted their shared efforts during World War II, when both nations fought against the forces of fascism. Additionally, it underscored their unity during the Cold War, as they worked together to overcome the threat of communism.
The US has the largest population of Greeks outside of Greece itself with a diaspora population of roughly three million.
Mother and daughter are subjects of second liver transplant from a living donor in Greece. Credit: crucially. CC BY 2.0/flickr
Following on from the father-daughter liver transplant three months ago—the first liver transplant from a living donor in Greece—a mother has now done the same for her daughter.
The new liver transplant from a living donor, a mother-daughter pairing from Ioannina, also took place at the Laiko Hospital under a scientific team led by the Professor of Surgery and Transplantation of the School of Medicine of the National University of Athens, Dr. George Sotiropoulos.
The father and daughter from Crete, the first donor-recipient pair to undergo such a procedure in Greece, are reportedly enjoying a new lease on life after the 23-year-old Eleni had a successful graft from her father, Spyros.
This second liver transplant from a living donor in Greece took place last Friday, March 29th, and now, as reported by ygeiamou.gr, the donor and recipient are recovering very well in Laiko.
Background on the second liver transplant
The 42-year-old mother donated the right lobe of her liver to her 21-year-old daughter, who was suffering from liver cirrhosis caused by cystic fibrosis. The daughter was diagnosed with the condition at the age of four months.
At the age of fifteen, she began experiencing adverse symptoms in her lungs after remaining relatively symptom-free for some time. Not long after her lungs began to suffer, liver cirrhosis was diagnosed, and her breathing became more labored due to a coronavirus infection.
The young patient is having follow-up checks for cystic fibrosis at the Sismanoglio Hospital by pulmonologist Dr. Diamantea and at the Laiko Hospital for liver cirrhosis by hepatologist Dr. Hologita.
Supposedly, the 42-year-old mother began exploring medical options for a transplant for her daughter after hearing about the success of the first liver transplant in Greece. She contacted Laiko and Professor Sotiropoulou’s team was fast-acting, signing off on all the necessary measures to ensure this transplant could proceed.
The procedure went smoothly both with the removal of the right lobe and its transplantation into the 21-year-old patient. Mother and daughter were treated in the ICU with no need for incubation following surgery.
The contribution of the medical staff was critical, Dr. Sotiropoulou told a Greek media source, “Many people came in off-duty in order to operate in an extra operating room last Friday. I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to all the medical and nursing staff at the Laiko Hospital who were involved in the whole process.”
“I especially thank my fellow surgeons, anesthesiologists, intensivists, hepatologists, hematologists and radiologists, nurses in the operating room, anesthesia department, intensive care unit and transplant ward, the transplant coordinators, the paramedical and technological staff and the hospital’s management for their efforts and the important contribution of each of them from their positions,” she added.
New 3D cosmic map raises questions about the future of the universe. Credit: Amanclos. CC BY 2.0/flickr
Researchers claim that findings from a new, much larger 3D cosmic map covering three times as many galaxies and previous efforts, may challenge the present idea of dark energy and raises questions about the future of the universe.
The largest ever 3D map of the universe, showcasing more than six million galaxies, has been revealed by scientists who claim it has challenged the current understanding of dark energy and the future of the universe.
The map is plotted on data collected by the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (Desi) in Arizona and features three times as many galaxies as efforts preceding it, with several having their distances measured for the first time.
Researchers claim that by employing the map, they have been able to measure how quickly the universe has been expanding at various times in the past with unprecedented accuracy. The results confirm the common knowledge that the expansion of the universe is speeding up.
What the Map May Teach Us about Dark Energy and the Future of the Universe
But, the findings have also brought up the alluring possibility that dark energy – a mysterious, repulsive force that drives the process – is not constant throughout time as has previously been posited.
Dr Seshadri Nadathur, a co-author of the study and senior research fellow at the University of Portsmouth’s Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation, said, “What we are seeing are some hints that it has actually been changing over time, which is quite exciting because it is not what the standard model of a cosmological constant dark energy would look like,” as reported by the Guardian.
Professor Carlos Frenk, a co-author from Durham University, claims that if dark energy was in fact constant in time, the future of the universe was simple: it would expand endlessly, forever. But if the clues in the map stand up, that notion would be called into question.
“Now all of that goes out the window and essentially we have to start from scratch, and that means revising our understanding of basic physics, our understanding of the big bang itself, and our understanding of the long-range forecast for the universe,” he told the Guardian, adding that the new hints left open the possibility that the universe might undergo a “big crunch”.
The research is yet to be peer-reviewed, having only just been published in a series of preprints. It conveys how the scientists first produced the 3D map, and then measured patterns in the distribution of galaxies that relate to sound waves that occurred in the early universe, known as baryon acoustic oscillations.
The size of these patterns is known to be regular, and thus the researchers were able to calibrate the distances to different galaxies included in the map, allowing them to calculate how quickly the universe has been expanding over the last 11 billion years, with a precision better than 0.5 percent over all times, and better than 1 percent between eight billion and 11 billion years ago.
Ancient Greece is traditionally divided into six ages, the Bronze Age, Iron Age, Archaic Age, Classical Age and Hellenistic Age. Credit: Adam Polselli. CC BY 2.0/flickr
Ancient Greece has traditionally been periodized into five distinct eras, the Bronze Age, Iron Age, Archaic Age, Classical Age and Hellenistic Age. By looking at archaeology, art, architecture, literature, and other remains of the past, it is possible to determine what characterized each of these ages.
Bronze Age in ancient Greece
The Bronze Age is a period in history that lasted for around 3,000 years and saw significant advances in social, economic, and technological phenomena that made Greece the center of activity in the Mediterranean.
Historians typically identify the Greek Bronze Age as encompassing three distinct civilizations, which overlap in time and coincide with the major geographic regions of Greece. The Cycladic civilization developed on the islands of the Aegean, and more specifically around the Cyclades, while the Minoans resided on the large island of Crete.
Greek mainland in the Bronze Age
During this time, the Greek mainland was occupied by what historians refer to as the “Helladic” civilization, which, from the end of the 11th century BC, came to be known as the Mycenaean era. This period of time was also known as the “Age of Heroes” because it is the source of mythological heroes, such as Heracles, and epics like those of the Iliad and the Odyssey.
Joseph Mallord William Turner – Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus, Homer’s Odyssey, 1829. Credit: Gandalf’s Gallery. CC BY 2.0/flickr
This “Helladic” period, named after Hellas, the Greek name for Greece, is divided into three subperiods: the Early Helladic period (c. 3,200-2,000 BC), a time of relative prosperity with the use of metals, and a surge in technological, economic, and social development. The Middle Helladic period (c. 2,000-1,700 BC) saw a more gradual development, including the evolution of megaron-type dwellings and cist grave burials.
The last phase of Middle Helladic, the Middle Helladic III (c. 1,750-1,675 BC), along with the Late Helladic period (c. 1,700-1,050 BC) coincide roughly with Mycenaean Greece.
It is not completely clear why, but the Mycenaeans outlived both the people of the Cyclades and the Minoans, and by the end of the 10th century BC had expanded their influence over the Greek mainland, the islands of the Aegean and Ionian seas, Crete, and the coast of Asia Minor.
The most prominent site was Mycenae, which gave its name to the civilization. Other hubs of power that emerged during the Bronze Age were Pylos, Tiryns, and Midea in the Peloponnese, Orchomenos, Thebes, and Athens in Central Greece, and Iolcos in Thessaly. Mycenaean settlements also appeared in Epirus, Macedonia, on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the southwest coast of Asia Minor, and Cyprus. Mycenaean-influenced settlements appeared in the Levant and Italy.
Large Krater, Men in Armor, Mycenaean Pictorial style, from House of the Warrior Vase, Mycenae acropolis, 12th century BC. Credit: Sharon Mollerus. CC BY 2.0/flickr
After 1,100 BC, Mycenaean civilization ceased to exist either because of internal trouble, the Dorian invasions, or through a combination of the two.
What is well known is that the endless destruction exacted on Mycenaean civilization took three hundred years to overcome and reverse. This period is known as the “Dark Ages” partly because the people of ancient Greece fell into a period of primitive sustenance with no notable evidence of cultural advancement and partly because the incomplete historical record makes it difficult to study.
Minoans
All three Bronze Age Greek civilizations shared certain characteristics but also showed a number of distinct practices in their individual cultures. The Minoans are usually considered the first advanced civilization of Europe, while Mycenaean culture had a significant influence with its myths and Greek language on what would later become Classical Greece.
The Minoan civilization of Crete flourished from around 3,000 BC to about 1,100 BC. Its name comes from Minos, either a dynastic title or the name of a specific ruler of Crete who has a place in Greek legend.
Crete grew to be the foremost site of Bronze Age culture in the Aegean Sea, earning its place as the first center of high civilization in that region, beginning at the end of the third millennium BC. It reached its height at around 1,600 BC and the later 15th century and was renowned for its great cities and palaces, extended trade throughout the Levant and beyond, and use of writing.
Northwest Propylaeum, Minoan Palace of Knossos Ruins, Knossos, Greece. Credit: w_lemay. CC BY 2.0/flickr
Its sophisticated art included elaborate seals, pottery, and, above all, delicate, vibrant frescoes found on palace walls. These frescoes display both secular and religious scenes, such as magical gardens, monkeys, and wild goats or fancifully dressed goddesses that testify to the Minoans’ predominantly matriarchal religion.
Cycladic cultures
In the third millennium BC, a unique civilization, known as the Early Cycladic culture (c. 3,200-2,300 BC), emerged with important settlement sites on Keros and at Halandriani on Syros.
During this period of ancient Greece in the Early Bronze Age, metallurgy developed at a rapid pace in the Mediterranean. It was particularly lucky for the Early Cycladic culture that their islands were rich in iron ores and copper, and that they offered a favorable route across the Aegean. Inhabitants would fish, build ships, and export their mineral resources, as trade flourished between the Cyclades, Minoan Crete, Helladic Greece, and the coast of Asia Minor.
Early Cycladic culture is typically divided into two main phases, the Grotta-Pelos (Early Cycladic I) culture (c. 3,200-2,700 BC) and the Keros-Syros (Early Cycladic II) culture (c. 2,700-2,400 BC). These names correspond to significant burial sites.
Sadly, very few settlements from the Early Cycladic period have been discovered with much of the evidence of the culture coming from objects, mostly marble vessels and figurines, that the islanders buried with their dead.
Iron Age Greece
The Iron Age, also known as the Greek Dark Ages, was a period in Greek history that ran from the end of the Mycenaean palatial civilization around 1,100 BC to the beginning of the Archaic Age around 750 BC.
It came on the heel of the Late Bronze Age civilizational collapse in the Eastern Mediterranean world around 1,200-1,150 BC, as the grand palaces and cities of the Mycenaeans were destroyed or abandoned. At roughly the same time, the Hittite civilization also suffered severe disruption with cities from Troy to Gaza being destroyed.
In Egypt, the New Kingdom fell into disarray, leading to the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt. Following the collapse, there were fewer, smaller settlements, suggesting widespread famine and depopulation.
In Greece, the Linear B script used by Mycenaean bureaucrats to pen the Greek language ceased to be used, and the Greek alphabet did not develop until the beginning of the Archaic period. Decoration on Greek pottery after around 1,100 BC does not have images of Mycenaean ware and is typically restricted to simpler, generally geometric styles.
Tablet with Linear B Script from the Palace of Knossos – 1375 BC. Credit: TimeTravelRome. CC BY 2.0/flickr
During the Dark Ages of Greece, the old major settlements were abandoned (with the exception of Athens), and the population dropped significantly. Throughout these 300 years, the people of Greece lived in small groups that roamed constantly in accordance with their new pastoral lifestyle and livestock needs, while they left no written record behind leading to the conclusion that they were illiterate.
Later on in this era, between 950 and 750 BC, the Greeks once again learned to write, but this time using the alphabet of the Phoenicians instead of the Linear B script used by the Mycenaeans, bringing in vowels as letters. The Greek version of the alphabet eventually formed the base of the alphabet used for English today.
Archaic Greece
Archaic Greece was the era in Greek history that ran from around 800 BC right through to the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC. During this period, Greeks settled around the Mediterranean and the Black Seas as far as Marseille (present-day France) in the west and Trabzon (present-day Turkey) in the east. By the close of the archaic period, Greeks had formed a trade network that spanned the whole Mediterranean.
Pulling out of the Dark Ages, the archaic period began with a huge increase in the Greek population and brought about several changes that bolstered the Greek world at the end of the eighth century to a position completely unrecognizable from its beginning.
According to Professor Anthony Snodgrass from the Faculty of Classics at the University of Cambridge, UK, the archaic period began with a “structural revolution” that “drew the political map of the Greek world” and established the poleis (Greek city states), and it came to a close with the intellectual revolution of the Classical period.
Map of Archaic Greece. Credit: Megistias. CC BY 3.0/Wikimedia Commons/Megistias
Developments in Greek politics, economics, international relations, warfare, and culture were made during this period, and it paved the way for the Classical period, both politically and culturally.
It was in this period that the Greek alphabet developed, the earliest surviving Greek literature was written, monumental sculpture and red-figure pottery began in Greece, and the hoplite became the core of Greek armies.
In Athens, the first institutions of democracy were implemented under Solon, and the reforms of Cleisthenes at the end of the archaic period brought in Athenian democracy as it was during the Classical period.
In Sparta, many of the institutions credited to the reforms of Lycurgus were introduced during the archaic age. Furthermore, the region of Messenia was brought under Spartan control, helotage was introduced, and the Peloponnesian League was founded and made Sparta a dominant power in ancient Greece.
Development of the polis
Perhaps the most significant political development of the archaic age was the rise of the polis, or city state, which became the predominant unit of political organization. Although several cities throughout ancient Greece fell under the rule of tyrants, this period also saw the implementation of law and systems of communal decision-making, with the earliest evidence for law codes and constitutional structures dating to this period. By the close of the archaic period, both the Athenian and Spartan constitutions appear to have developed into their classical forms.
The archaic period saw significant urbanization, and by Solon’s time, the word polis had acquired its classical meaning. Although, in this era, the political community aspect of the polis was still finding its full form, the polis as an urban center was a product of the eighth century.
The Classical Age
Perhaps the best-known period of ancient Greece is the Classical Age, which played out between the Persian Wars at the beginning of the fifth century BC and the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC.
The Classical Age was a time of heavy war and conflict—first between the Greeks and the Persians, then between the Athenians and the Spartans—but it was also an era of unprecedented political and cultural advancement in ancient Greece. The Parthenon and Greek tragedy arose in this period, along with the historian Herodotus, the physician Hippocrates, and philosopher Socrates.
It also gave rise to political reforms that are ancient Greece’s most enduring contribution to the modern world: the system known as demokratia, or “rule by the people.”
Greco-Persian Wars
With efforts spearheaded by Athens and Sparta, the Greek city-states were engaged in a huge war with the Persian Empire at the start of the fifth century BC. In 498 BC, the Greek armies sacked the Persian city of Sardis, and in 490 BC, the Persian king sent a naval fleet across the Aegean to attack Athenian soldiers in the Battle of Marathon.
The Olympic Spirits – Crystal Chapter, Scene 3 – Battle of Marathon. Credit: dancelilsister. CC BY 2.0/flickr
The Athenians came out victorious, but the Persians kept coming. In 480 BC, the new Persian king sent an enormous army across the Hellespont to Thermopylae, where 60,000 Persian soldiers defeated 5,000 Greeks in the Battle of Thermopylae. This was when King Leonidas of Sparta was famously killed.
The following year, however, the Greeks beat the Persians for the final time at the Battle of Salamis.
The rise of Athens
The downfall of the Persians marked the start of Athenian political, economic, and cultural dominance. In 507 BC, the Athenian nobleman Cleisthenes removed the last of the tyrants and put in place a new system of citizen self-governance that he called demokratia.
In his political system, every male citizen older than 18 was eligible to join the ekklesia, or Assembly, the sovereign governing body of Athens. Other lawmakers were chosen randomly by lot rather than election.
In this early form of Greek democracy, officials were sworn to act “according to the laws [and] what is best for the people.”
Despite a new and fair(er) system of politics, Athens did not approach its relationships with other Greek city states with any kind of new fair-mindedness. To protect faraway Greek cities from Persian invasion, Athens organized a confederacy of allies which it called the Delian League in 478 BC.
Athens benefitted from this arrangement greatly in that most Delian League dues ended up in the city state’s own treasury, turning Athens into a wealthy imperial power.
Periclean Athens
Athens under Pericles, an Athenian general, is sometimes called the Golden Age of Athens. This great general put to use all the Delian League tribute money in the service of the citizens of Athens. He paid modest wages to jurors and members of the ekklesia so that, theoretically, everyone who was eligible could afford to participate in the public life of the demokratia.
Pericles also promoted the arts and literature in this age, and it is largely down to his efforts that Athens gathered the reputation of being the artistic, intellectual, and cultural center of ancient Greece.
He initiated an ambitious project that produced most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis, including the Parthenon. This scheme made the city more aesthetic as well as protected it, alongside giving its people work.
Pericles also pushed Athenian democracy so far that his critics called him a populist. He was descended, through his mother, from the powerful and historically influential Alcmaeonid family. He and several of his family members contracted the Plague of Athens in 429 BC, which weakened the city state during a long conflict with Sparta.
Hellenistic Age
The Hellenistic Age refers to the three centuries of Greek history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the rise of Augustus in Rome in 31 BC.
When Alexander died, he left his enormous conquered territory without a clear line of succession, and his most powerful generals divided it up into several vast kingdoms. The new independent governments, along with the spread of Greek culture as far away as India, paved the way for dramatic changes to the perceptions Greeks held regarding themselves and the world around them.
The arts and other areas of life in ancient Greece had always been influenced by other cultures, but the vast expanses of territory gained during Alexander the Great’s conquests brought greater possibilities for further cultural exchanges in the Hellenistic Age.
This sharing led to a new cosmopolitanism in the Greek world and influenced the desire to understand, appreciate, and represent the diversity of individual peoples. Greater mobility made possible by territorial expansion also motivated people to seek a sense of purpose and belonging.
Philosophy and other intellectual pursuits, which developed rapidly during the Hellenistic period, provided a means of exploring one’s thoughts and seeing the world, and it was during this time that philosophers such as Epicurus and Diogenes of Sinope found their followers and influenced the succeeding generations.
Agostino Scilla. The philosopher Epicurus. Credit: Agostino Scilla. CC BY 4.0/Wikimedia Commons/Agostino Scilla
Social and cultural changes also led to alterations in Greek religious practices. Individualistic mentalities led to a new fascination with mystery cults, which typically promised rewards in the form of a better afterlife.
New deities entered the minds of Greeks from areas such as Egypt and Syria, the result of cosmopolitanism and cultural exchange. Ruler-cults became commonplace as Hellenistic kings and queens started being worshipped alongside gods. In certain parts of the Hellenistic world, such as Egypt, which was ruled in the Hellenistic period by a family called the Ptolemies, a long tradition of ruler worship already existed, but in other regions, which had no such tradition, ruler worship was not taken up as quickly or as strongly.
The arts flourished in the Hellenistic period as artists explored new ways of representing emotional effects, individual experiences, and ornate details. Architecture was used as a way of expressing an interest in the dramatic through huge structures, as well as surprising vistas, such as at the sanctuary of Athena on the island of Lindos.
Religious buildings were commonly designed to give visitors a physical and emotional experience that matched their religious experience, evoking feelings of awe, revelation, and delight.
Hellenistic sculpture evidenced a new awareness of personality and introspection by conveying realism and human emotion instead of the detached idealism shown in the art of the Classical period.
The Greek Prime Minister and the status quo of Greek politics will face a crucial test in the upcoming European elections. Credit: European Parliament, Flickr, CC BY 2.0 DEED
At the heart of an unstable and turbulent region, Greek politics stand at a political crossroads with the country’s current political landscape shaped by the dominant presence of the center-right New Democracy party, led by Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis.
Despite being shaken by a number of political scandals and growing discontent, the strongest party in Greece maintains a significant lead in every poll although there has been a recent downward trajectory. This is evidence of the deep-rooted influence that Mitsotakis himself, as well as his party, enjoy within the Greek political sphere.
However, the upcoming European elections loom large and could reshape the political terrain of Greece for the years to come.
The Mitsotakis government and its challenges
The tenure of Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis has been marked by numerous controversies that have tested the strength of his administration in the past five years.
The most notable issue among these was the infamous wiretapping scandal, dubbed the “Greek Watergate.” This scandal, which broke out in the summer of 2022, raised serious concerns about the privacy of politicians, businessmen, journalists, and even high-ranking military officials in addition to broader concerns about government overreach. It forced Mitsotakis’ trusted private secretary, Gregory Demetriades, to resign and raised questions about the PM’s involvement in the wiretapping scandal.
This incident, coupled with the tragic Tempe train crash of February 2023, sparked widespread public outrage, putting the Greek government’s crisis management capabilities under scrutiny.
Although the Tempe train crash happened over a year ago, it continues to rock the center-right government. A parliamentary inquiry into the circumstances that led to the disaster only finished very recently with the political opposition in Greece accusing the government of trying to cover up administrative, political, and even criminal responsibilities of the then Transport Minister Kostas Karamanlis and other officials.
Amidst all these challenges, the Greeks also have to deal with an ever-escalating cost-of-living crisis that remains at the top of concerns for ordinary people. Soaring prices, particularly of food, energy, and housing, along with the broader international economic uncertainty have become pressing issues that cast an ever-growing shadow over the government’s ability to deal with what matters most in the everyday life of the Greeks.
Despite these hurdles, Mitsotakis managed a landslide victory in the May and June 2023 elections, throwing SYRIZA, the main left-wing opposition party into a long-lasting crisis that continues to this day.
Within the last twelve months, the political landscape in Greece became further complicated by the emergence of brand new political entities and the resurgence of extremist, ultra-conservative, and far-right ideologies. The unprecedented fragmentation of the political system along with the legacy of the ten-year economic crisis that started in 2008, have given rise to new political groupings, which challenge the dominance of traditional political groups. This evolving dynamic hints at yet another potential new realignment with the upcoming European elections poised to serve as a critical milestone.
The outcome of the European elections that are scheduled to take place between the 6th and 9th of June could either bolster the mandate of Mitsotakis or signal a major shift in the political winds. There will be implications for both domestic policies and Greece’s role on the European stage in general.
The leader of Greece’s opposition, Stefanos Kasselakis. Credit: AMNA
The weakened center-left opposition
Based on recent developments, the two main left and center-left parties of the country, SYRIZA and PASOK, face contrasting prospects in the upcoming European elections. SYRIZA, who governed Greece between 2015 and 2019 with the support of the small populist right-wing ANEL party, has been plagued by internal divisions since the election of its new leader Stefanos Kasselakis in September 2023.
There, several prominent members defected in protest of his leadership style and ideological direction, accusing him of bringing lifestyle choices ahead of ideology. Opinion polls showed SYRIZA trailing between second and third place behind PASOK. However, recently, the party appears to be pulling ahead of PASOK, securing second place in the polls.
Meanwhile, PASOK, Greece’s historical social-democrat party that governed Greece for decades in the past, has seen a resurgence under the leadership of Nikos Androulakis. Its vote share increased in recent national elections. PASOK gained 11.8 percent in 2023 compared to a mere 8.1 percent in 2019. Many believe the party could easily take on SYRIZA and establish itself as the new main opposition. However, this outcome currently seems less likely.
PASOK’s strong performance in the 2023 local and regional elections, winning key cities like Athens and Thessaloniki, pointed to its potential rising political influence, but the party’s popularity may have peaked.
In the latest poll published by Pulse for Greece’s SKAI TV, PASOK ranked third with 12.5 percent behind SYRIZA who polled 15 percent.
Both parties will need to articulate a clear vision to mobilize voters in the upcoming European elections and should consider the possibility of collaborating to improve their odds of challenging Mitsotakis’ political dominance.
The Greek Parliament has never been more diverse and fragmented. The political spectrum is now more varied than ever with a total of nine political groups being represented in the national assembly of the Greeks. Despite governing for five years now, the 158 MPs-strong New Democracy party continues to hold a substantial lead over adversaries.
The resurgence of the far-right in Greek politics is a particularly notable development. A total of three Parliament groups stand farther to the right than the New Democracy party. This reflects a much broader European trend whereby economic uncertainty, migration, and discontent with the consequences of the war in Ukraine along with other social issues have fueled nationalist and populist sentiments. The far-right’s narrative in Greece has found resonance among certain segments of the population, adding another layer of complexity to the political landscape of the country.
This new resurgence of the far-right in Greece was marked by the entrance of three parties to the parliament: Spartans, Niki, and Greek Solution. They collectively won nearly 13 percent of the vote and 34 parliamentary seats.
The Spartans, a previously obscure and unknown party, surged to become the fifth largest force, backed by jailed Golden Dawn leader Ilias Kasidiaris.
Niki (Greek for Victory), on their behalf, espouses ultra-Orthodox, anti-abortion, and anti-woke agenda, comparable to the far-right in the US. Greek Solution takes a more pro-Russian, ultranationalist stance on issues such as the war in Ukraine and Greco-Turkish relations.
Analysts warn this could normalize extreme ideologies and influence government policies in Greece. This would be similar to many other European nations. Some political commentators have warned the revival of the far-right, enabled by the conservative government’s rightward shift on issues such as immigration, marks a worrying democratic backslide mirroring trends in countries like Italy, the Netherlands, and Hungary. Additionally, recent polls show a significant resurgence of one of the three far-right parties, the “Greek Solution.” The party is expected to get around—if not more—than 10 percent of the vote in the upcoming European elections, a first for a strongly right-wing party in Greece.
🗳️ Healthy democratic institutions require strong civic engagement. Ombudsmen from across Europe encourage EU citizens to exercise their right to shape European democracy and vote in the European elections on 6-9 June 🇪🇺 #UseYourVote
Upcoming EU elections and their impact on Greek politics
European elections are fast approaching, and with them comes the potential to reshape the Greek political scene once again. However, no pollster currently expects groundbreaking changes to the image of the Mitsotakis government. His party gained 33 percent of the vote in the last European elections of May 2019, a threshold that is probably going to be exceeded by the center-right party yet again unless something major changes.
Traditionally, these elections for the European Parliament are more than just a measure of the European Union’s pulse. They are a de-facto referendum on national governments and their policies across the Union. For the Mitsotakis administration in Greece, the stakes could not be higher. The elections will serve as a barometer for public opinion, potentially reinforcing the government’s mandate or undermining its authority with the first cracks in years becoming now more apparent than ever.
The stance of the European Parliament on critical issues, such as the EU’s support for Ukraine and the defense of democratic values, will play a significant role in shaping voter preferences in Greece as well as in other EU member-states. What remains unknown however, is how and to whose advantage.
For new and smaller parties, the elections, as always, offer a chance to gain a foothold on the European stage and influence policy from within. For the far-right, success in the European elections could translate into increased legitimacy and political capital at home. For example, the New Left party, which is newly formed by SYRIZA breakaways, aims to elect its first MEP to consolidate its presence in the Greek and European political spheres and avoid oblivion. On the other hand, the far-right ultra-conservative Greek Solution party aims to capitalize on the discontent of the conservative electorate of Mitsotakis, following his decision to legalize same-sex marriage a few months ago.
What will the future hold for Greek politics?
The scandals that have rocked the Mitsotakis government, coupled with the economic and social challenges facing the Greek people for many years now, have set the stage for a highly consequential electoral battle that’s on the horizon. The outcome of these elections will act as an indicator for the future direction on the European stage and Greece’s role within it.
Wildfires have arrived sooner than expected in Greece this year with temperatures reaching 30 degrees Celsius in late March. Credit: Felton Davis. CC BY 2.0/flickr
Large wildfires are already breaking out in Greece amid temperatures that reached 30 degrees Celsius in late March despite the fire season not being expected for another few weeks at least.
A 12th-century monastery near Athens played host to a firefighting drill today, Thursday, April 4th, wherein a wildfire simulation was created that trapped clergy and a group of people attending a baptism.
Volunteers and firefighters rapidly pulled the “victims” to safety through clouds of red smoke, as a drone whirring above sent live video of the rescue to a national coordination center.
Individuals at the baptism were played by actors hired for the day by the Fire Service and the regional authority, and smoke flares were employed to create fire-like conditions. The exercise, along with several drills set to take place this month, has been infused with extra urgency ahead of fire season, which officially starts on May 1st.
Temperatures hit 30 degrees Celsius towards the end of March, and huge wildfires already broke out weeks before expected.
“Due to climate, conditions have changed. Everything in nature is dry now and it’s very easy to catch fire. So we have to be ready to deal with it,” said Loukia Kefalogianni, the deputy regional government of the capital’s North Attica region.
How Greece plans to manage wildfires
To better deal with the heightened risk of wildfires, Greece is fast-tracking a 2.1 billion euros ($2.3 billion) scheme to upgrade its fleet of water tankers and produce an artificial intelligence-driven sensor network to detect smoke in the early stages of a fire.
However, delivery of the new equipment won’t begin until next year, which leaves planners in a position of having to find alternatives to drive down response times.
Meanwhile, authorities are putting their faith in a range of preventative measures. These include a more flexible administration and better inter-agency cooperation. These means there shall be better communication between local governments and the military. Increased drills before the blazing summer months begin are also expected.
“Εxercises like this one today are very, very helpful because all the agencies communicate with each other and work together to get better results on a larger scale,” Christos Symiakakis, a deputy fire chief for the region told The Independent.
Greece was once again at the center of Europe’s fire season during the summer last year. The nation experienced the most devastating wildfire in European Union records. Fires destroyed an estimated 1,750 square kilometers (675 square miles) last year. Deliveries to the country of seven new Canadian-made DHC-515 firefighting aircraft, part of a wider European Union order by six member states, are set to begin in 2027.
The Exakias or “Vatican Amphora” from 530 BC, which depicts ancient Greek warriors Ajax and Achilles playing a board game related to modern chess. Credit: Wikimedia Commons/Public domain
Chess has been receiving increased attention in the media, as Greek players are performing very well. Lately, the Greek chess team became the highest-ranked team in Europe and 5th in the world while participating in the Kasparov Cup. More exciting news came in just recently, as 11-year-old Evangelia Siskou from Thessaloniki became a world champion in the category for girls up to 13.
Many have questioned, was chess also played by Ancient Greeks.
Siskou won the World Championship for her age group ahead of 34 other young chess players. Credit: Facebook/AMO Galaxias Thessaloniki
How did chess become popular in Europe?
It is widely known that chess originated in India in the 6th century AD. The game featured many characteristics that were specific to the Indian army at the time. In the 9th century AD, chess had already reached different parts of Asia and Middle East. However, it was still not widely popular.
Chess set from Jaipur, India. Credit: squinting / Flickr CC BY 2.0
It made its way to Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries, where it underwent significant changes and adaptations before eventually becoming the familiar game we know today, thus introducing the rich and captivating chess culture to the Western world much later than its inception.
Already during the period of the Renaissance, it was a well-known game for the elites and aristocrats, who would invent new strategies and even use chess in diplomatic relations. Not only was it a tool for learning negotiation techniques, but it also helped philosophers, mathematicians, and even poets to come up with new ideas.
The popularity of chess in Europe also grew, and it was even used as a tool for military training. Many military leaders recognized the benefits of playing chess as a way to develop strategic thinking and planning skills which could be applied in battle.
Chess started becoming more and more popular when the first international competition was held in 1851 in London. This gave an opportunity to involve more people in the game, which is nowadays considered to be the acme of competitiveness, strategy, and intellect among board games.
Chess-like games played by the ancient Greeks
The Ancient Greeks did not play chess exactly as we know it today, but they did have board games that were very similar and just as exciting.
To sharpen their minds they invented many board games that featured strategy, planning, and critical thinking – just as chess does.
The first game that is noteworthy is Zatrikion, or Greek chess, which was very popular in Ancient Greece.
The Zatrikion board has a 64-square grid, like a chess board, but with different markings. The pieces used in Zatrikion are also different from those used in modern chess, with some pieces having unique moves. One notable feature of Zatrikion is that the game can end in a draw if neither player can win. In this case, the player with the most valuable pieces on the board is declared the winner.
Today, Zatrikion is mostly played as a historical or academic curiosity, rather than as a popular game. It is occasionally used as a variant of chess in some tournaments and chess clubs, but it has not gained widespread popularity.
Petteia – Ludus Latrunculorum, Iconography of the Hellenic Latin civilizations. Credit: Estudio de Arquepoética y Visualística Prospectiva / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
Another game that ancient Greeks would play was called “Petteia” which means pebbles. This game was a great way of picturing military strategy, as the players would sit in front of each other with a board and an even number of pieces. The players received black and white stones and had to capture the opponent’s pieces. The capture happens if one player’s piece was surrounded by two of the other player’s pieces. Whoever captured a greater number of pieces was declared the winner.
The last game worth noting is Ludus Latrunculorum, which translates to “the game of soldiers.” This was its roman name, but it is thought to be a variant of earlier Greek games known as Petteia, pesso, psêphoi, poleis, and pente grammai, to which references can be found as early as Homer’s time.
The Ancient Greeks used this game to improve their strategic thinking and tactics. The game was played with black and white pieces, and the goal was to capture the opponent’s pieces or surround them in such a way that they could not move.
Today these games are not as commonly played as chess, either in Greece or elsewhere in the world. However it is fascinating that, just like modern chess players, the Ancient Greeks recognized the importance of playing games that could enhance their ability to plan, strategize and develop their critical thinking skills.
