The Illyrians can be traced back to the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age, starting as a collection of tribes that were a dominant force in the Balkans.

Along with the Greeks and the Thracians, the Illyrians were Indo-European peoples who arrived in the west Balkans. According to Herodotus, originally the Greeks appear to have used this name to indicate the people living to the northwest of Macedonia, where modern-day Albania is. Later, they applied the name to people living on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea, in today’s Croatia.

The main industry in Illyria was metalwork. It was a land rich in silver and from the Roman period became an important center for silver mining, providing material for the production of imperial coins. In addition to silver, Illyrians exported natural products such as animal skins, cereals, and even slaves. They were also known as skilled pirates who roamed the Adriatic and Ionian Seas.

During the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the Illyrians achieved the height of their power and became a major threat to Rome. Illyria’s proximity with the Kingdom of Macedon and the conflict between the two along with their skills at piracy put them on Rome’s agenda, as it worked to stabilize the frontiers of the young Roman Empire.

When the Romans conquered their land, they named it Illyricum and divided it into three provinces: Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Epirus. Historians doubt if the Illyrians ever called themselves that or their land Illyria, as there are no inscriptions found written by them.

History and language

The exact time these tribes settled in territories west of Macedonia is debated. However, as centuries passed and societies progressed, it was found that they had built fortifications. This means that they had possessions they were prepared to protect by military means.

Between 800 and 500 BC, the first Illyrian kingdoms can be identified. A bronze vessel found in Slovenia shows a man sitting on a throne, soldiers, horses, chariots, a sacrifice, and what appears to be either a battle or an athletic event.

From the fifth century BC, we have written testimonies of Herodotus and Thucydides about Illyrians. Herodotus does not mention Illyria as a defined area, but does mention its people a few times, and is the earliest preserved source to do so. He describes them as the inhabitants of the upper valley of the river Angrus (Ibar), south of the Triballi who inhabited the valley of Morava. Herodotus also knew of the prophecy of the Illyrian sack of Delphi.

Similarly, Thucydides mentioned Illyrians, rather than Illyria. He writes about Taulantii,  whom he described as an Illyrian tribe that played an important role in Greek conflicts as the allies of the Corcyreans in 436 BC. He also mentions Illyrians as the allies of Arrabeus, the king of Lyncus, who won a victory against the Macedonian king Perdiccas and the Spartan leader Brasidas, east of the Lyncestian lakes (Ohrid and Prespa). There is also the mention of ‘shrieking Illyrians’ in Aristophanes’ comedy Birds.

In regards to the language the Illyrians spoke, linguists agree that it is an Indo-European language even though there are no inscriptions found or any evidence of Illyrian literature. They infer so from known words such as Deipaturus (obviously meaning father of gods), teuta (people), or sabaia (beer). However, it is not clear if there was a single Illyrian language or a group of languages spoken by different tribes.

Illyrians, Macedonians, and Romans

By the 4th century BC the term ‘Illyrian’ has been established in Ancient Greece. They were mentioned as the neighbors of Macedonians. In his First Olynthiac oration, Demosthenes mentions the campaigns of Philip II of Macedon against the Illyrians and Peonians. They became more present in the Greek world due to the conflicts between the Macedonians and Illyrians in the 4th century, especially in the era of Philip II and Alexander the Great. Most of these became known from second-hand sources such as Diodorus Siculus, a 1st-century BC Greek historian.

The proximity between the two kingdoms resulted in several conflicts as the Illyrians kept interfering in Macedonian land. The ambitious King Bardyllis (r. 393-358 BC) was the first to establish an attested dynasty and confronted the Macedonian army. When Philip II of Macedon married the Illyrian princess Audata, he marched into Illyria, in territories that had been snatched from the kingdom of Macedon. He confronted Bardyllis’ army at Erigon Valley and won, kicking the Illyrians out of former Macedonian land, annexing Illyrian territory, and therefore securing Macedonia’s northwest frontier.

In the second half of the 3rd century BC, King Agron stretched his authority as far as the central Adriatic and the Peloponnese. With the support of King Demetrius II of Macedon, he managed to forge an independent kingdom. When Agron died in 231 BC, his wife Teuta assumed the regency for her stepson Pinnes and believed she could build an empire funded by piracy. After the conquest of Phoenice and an unsuccessful attempt to besiege Issa, a steadfast ally of Rome, in 230 and 229 respectively, the Romans began to pay attention to Illyrian ambitions.

Illyrian pirates were disrupting Rome’s sea trade. At the same time, the Romans were afraid of an alliance with Macedonia that would threaten territories where Rome had established its dominance. The Illyrian ambitions became clear to Rome when they sent a Roman-Issaean delegation to discuss the issue of piracy and the Illyrians assassinated them. That was the cause of the first Illyrian War in 229 BC which ended with the Romans thrashing the Illyrian army.

The second Illyrian War was fought in 219 BC as King Demetrius, who had succeeded Teuta, resorted to piracy again. The Romans easily defeated the Illyrians once more. A long period of protracted conflict followed with the Illyrians getting help from King Philip V of Macedon. Finally, in 168 BC, the third and last Illyrian War took place with Rome putting an end to piracy in the Adriatic and Illyria itself by defeating the army of its last king, Genthius.