The 10 Tribes of Ancient Athens

Philip Chrysopoulos
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The 10 Tribes of Ancient Athens
Temple of Hephaestus, Ancient Agora of Athens, Greece
The temple of Hephaestus, as seen from the Ancient Agora where the tribes of Athens used to meet. Public domain

Cleisthenes was the statesman who laid the foundations of democracy in ancient Athens by dividing Attica into ten tribes, based on location, and putting an end to the rule of nobility.

Even though Pericles (495-429 BC) is considered to be the one who established democracy in Athens, it was Cleisthenes, an uncle of Pericles, who made the necessary constitutional reforms in 508 BC so as to give power to the citizens regardless of their wealth or social status.

A member of the aristocratic Alcmaeonid family, Cleisthenes went beyond his privileged background to serve the city. For this, he requested help from the Oracle of Delphi to persuade the Spartans to help him overthrow the tyrant of Athens, Hippias.

With the help of the Spartans and his greater family, he kicked Hippias out, and, after a few turbulent years of schemes from rivals, he began the reforms he had in mind.

The first thing he did was to divide the Attica area into ten deme (plural of demos), thus altering established power structures. The demos became the unit of electoral democracy. He also divided Attica into three parts: the city of Athens itself, the coastal district of Attica, and the rural inland region.

Each of the new tribes (phylae) was to comprise of people, that is demes, one from the city, one from the coast of Attica, and one from the rural inland region. This was known as the trittyes system. The trittyes were administrative subdivisions. There were thirty trittyes, ten tribes, and approximately a hundred and forty deme in total.

The 10 Tribes of Ancient Athens

The ten tribes, or phylae, of ancient Athens were named according to mythical heroes. The names of those heroes were selected by the Oracle of Delphi from a list provided by the city of Athens. Each hero was represented by a bronze statue on the Monument of the Eponymous Heroes in the Athenian Agora.

The monument played an important role in the civic life of Athens, serving as a bulletin board and a place of gathering to discuss issues pertaining to the deme.

The 10 tribes were:

Erechtheis: Named after Erechtheus, an early king of Athens who had sacrificed several of his daughters to save the city. He had defeated Eumolpus of Eleusis in battle and later was killed by Poseidon. He was then worshipped on the Acropolis, where the famous Erechtheion was built in his honor. The phyle had fourteen deme.

Aigeis: Named after the early king of Athens, Aigeus, father of Theseus. The phyle had twenty deme.

Pandionis: This was also the name of the legendary King Pandion, father of the sisters Procne and Philomela. It had eleven deme.

Leontis: Named after Leos, a son of Orpheus who had three daughters who sacrificed themselves to save the city. It was a phyle with twenty deme.

Akamantis: This was the name of the legendary hero Akamas, son of the king of Athens, Theseus. Pericles was a member of the tribe that had fifteen deme.

Oineis: Named after Oeneus, a Calydonian king who introduced wine-making to Aetolia, and possibly also the son of Dionysus. This consisted of fourteen deme.

Kekropis: Named after Kekrops, an early king of Athens. He was the father of Aglauros, Herse, and Pandrosos. It had eleven deme.

Hippothondis: This took its name from Hippothoon, a hero of Eleusis. It had seventeen deme.

Atlantis: Named after Ajax, son of Telamon, who fought in Salamis and hero of the Troy War. It had six deme.

Antiochis: This took its name from Antiochos, the son of Heracles. It had thirteen deme.

Fifty Men From Each Tribe Formed the Boule

Athenian male (and only male) citizens were represented in the Boule, the modern day Parliament. Each tribe sent fifty representatives to the Boule, or Athenian Council, where they served according to their tribe.

As a unit, each tribe would take its turn acting as chair or fulfilling presidential (prytaneis) obligations for about a month at a time. However, the order in which each tribe served was not always the same. The political structure of Athens did not remain the same through the years. New statesmen came, and lawmakers and conditions changed.

Diplomacy played an important role in policy making. For instance, in 307 BC, Athenians honored two Macedonian heroes with the Monument of the Eponymous Heroes, adding two new tribes respectively: the Antigonis after Antigonos I Monophthalmos and Demetrias after Demetrios Poliorcetes.

Similarly, in 224 to 223 BC, another Hellenistic king, Ptolemy III Euergetes, was added to the list of heroes, making them thirteen.

The Romantic Greek Island of Eros is a Wedding Destination

Anna Wichmann
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The Romantic Greek Island of Eros is a Wedding Destination
eros greek island weddings
The Greek island of Eros, which is located near the larger island of Poros in the Saronic Gulf, has become a popular destination for weddings. Credit: Screenshot from video

The tiny, uninhabited Greek island of Eros has become an international wedding destination.

The tiny islet, aptly named Eros, which refers both to “love” and the god Cupid, is heart-shaped from an aerial perspective, and is uninhabited. The only events that take place there are weddings.

Couples from Greece and around the world visit the island, which is located in the Saronic Gulf near the island of Poros, to get married in paradise.

The island used to be called “Daskalio,” as local legend states that there was a secret underground Greek school on the island during the Ottoman occupation of the country, but the veracity of this legend has been questioned.

During those years, there were only secret schools which would teach the Greek language, and the teaching was done by priests. The books of hymns were like the language book of the first grade, and the Gospels would be the textbooks for older students.

Greek island Eros has become wedding destination

The island features sandy beaches and pine trees, as well as a small chapel for weddings. The island of Eros gained international fame after it was featured in a Greek tourism campaign in the early 2000s.

Both Greeks and international visitors have fallen in love with the island, and began visiting the idyllic location for weddings and baptisms.

Eros can only be accessed by boat, and those who wish to visit the island of love can arrange a trip at the port of Poros.

The quiet island of Poros is ideal for holidays with the family, and it is a favorite destination for a weekend away amongst Athenians. Combining a stay on Poros with a visit to Eros is a great choice for any vacation or event.

The town of Poros is a vibrant city with interesting Neoclassical architecture. The most remarkable building is the Clock Tower, which dates back to 1927. The tower stands at the highest point of the city and resembles a lighthouse.

On the west coast of Poros, the Holy Monastery of Zoodochu Pigis offers stunning views of the sea. The old monastery is an integral part of the story of the island. It was founded by Ioakovos the II, Archbishop of Athens, after a healing miracle he experienced after drinking water from a spring in the area. The monastery also home to church with impressive paintings and a magnificent wooden icon from Cappadocia (Turkey).

Recently Greece announced that  Poros will become the third “green island” in the Aegean following the islands of Astypalaia and Halki.

Bronze Age Gold Treasure Crafted With Metal From Meteor

Tasos Kokkinidis
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Bronze Age Gold Treasure Crafted With Metal From Meteor
Bronze Age Gold Treasure
The Treasure of Villena comprises 59 objects made of gold, silver, iron, and amber with a total weight of almost 10 kilograms. Credit: CC BY-SA 3.0/Wikipedia

A dazzling Bronze Age gold treasure discovered in Spain more than 60 years ago was crafted with metal from a meteor a new analysis reveals.

The hoard, known as the Treasure of Villena comprises 59 objects made of gold, silver, iron and amber with a total weight of almost 10 kilograms, 9 of them of 23.5 karat gold.

This makes it the most important find of prehistoric gold in the Iberian Peninsula and second in Europe, just behind that from the Royal Graves in Mycenae, Greece.

The Treasure of Villena is kept in an armored display case, given its immense value, in the town’s archaeological museum. Experts have always doubted whether it belonged to the post-Argaric period (1,500-1,300 B.C.) or the last stages of the Late Bronze Age (8th century B.C.).

Now, the study “Meteoritic iron in the Villena Treasure?” has added a spectacular fact thanks to metal analysis carried out on some of the pieces: they were made in the Late Bronze Age (1,400-1,200 B.C.) using iron from a meteorite.

The study revealed that the iron used in two of the artifacts originated from a meteorite that fell to Earth around 1 million years ago.

Bronze Age Gold Treasure
A part of the Tesoro de Villena hoard, a bracelet made of iron from a meteor. Credit: Villena Archaeological Museum

Bronze Age Gold Treasure re-examined

The key that leads some researchers to place the chronology of the complex well into the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age is the existence of two iron pieces: a small hollow semisphere covered with a sheet of gold, supposedly interpreted as a pommel of a sword hilt, and an open bracelet.

“They are the first objects found in the Iberian Peninsula that were made with material from beyond planet Earth,” the experts say, according to El Pais.

The pommel is decorated with three bands, crossed by four parallel strips that create four sectors and result in a four-pointed star. The bracelet is an open ring, with rounded and somewhat flattened ends.

Its discoverer described it as “a dark leaden metal. It is shiny in some areas, and covered with a ferrous-looking oxide that is mostly cracked.”

Their analysis has been able to determine that these are not pieces made with terrestrial iron produced by the reduction of minerals existing in the mantle of planet Earth. Instead, they are “extraterrestrial and [were] made during the Late Bronze Age.”

To obtain this data, two tiny extractions were made, under the supervision of the technical staff of the Alicante museum. The samples were then taken to Madrid for analysis at the laboratory of the National Archaeological Museum.

“Meteorite iron is found in certain types of aerolites that, since they come from outer space, are composed of an iron-nickel alloy with a variable nickel composition greater than 5 percent by weight.

“They also contain other minor and trace chemical elements, cobalt being one of the most significant. However, the levels of nickel in terrestrial iron are generally low or very low and frequently not detectable in analysis,” the study explains.

The conclusions obtained in Spain and Germany are clear: “The results of the analyses carried out on the iron pieces from the Villena hoard indicate with a high probability that they are objects made with meteoritic iron.”

Related: Two Alien Minerals Unknown to Earth Found in Meteorite

European Parliament Alarmed Over Rule of Law in Greece

Tasos Kokkinidis
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European Parliament Alarmed Over Rule of Law in Greece
Brexit
European parliament. Credit: Europarl/ CC-BY-SA 2.0

On Wednesday, the European Parliament raised the alarm over several worrying developments in Greece threatening the rule of law and called on the Commission to act.

In a resolution adopted with 330 votes in favor, 254 against, and 26 abstentions, MEPs expressed grave concerns about very serious threats to democracy, the rule of law, and fundamental rights in the country.

Regarding media pluralism and the safety of journalists, MEPs have complained about the lack of progress in the investigation of the murder of George Karaivaz in April 2021.

They denounced that journalists are subject to physical threats and verbal attacks (also from high-ranking politicians), violations of their privacy with spyware, and abusive lawsuits, including from the Prime Minister’s entourage.

The European Parliament also has concerns over the independence of the national audiovisual regulatory authority, the concentration of media in the hands of oligarchs, and the distribution of state subsidies.

Wiretapping scandal and the rule of law in Greece

MEPs also condemned the instrumentalization of “national security threats” to wiretap political opponents, including MEPs. In response to the wiretapping scandal, MEPs demanded that democratic safeguards should be strengthened and called for effective investigations with the help of Europol.

They asked for the reversal of legislation that placed the intelligence service under the direct control of the Prime Minister. The resolution voices concerns over the transfer of the investigation to a different prosecutor and political pressure, intimidation, and harassment of officials who are scrutinizing the government.

Parliament also pointed to the excessive use of force by police and the deficient quality of subsequent investigations and court rulings, alleged corruption, the length of judicial proceedings, and possible conflicts of interest, including police infiltration by organized crime.

The treatment of migrants and systematic pushbacks worry MEPs, as do attacks against civil society. This is particularly so with smear campaigns and judicial harassment against human rights activists.

MEPs suspect lack of political impartiality in the parliamentary inquiry into the Tempi train disaster—which caused dozens of deaths in February 2023—and are concerned about the pro-government parliamentary majority’s refusal to conduct an investigation into two former ministers for transport as requested by the EU Public Prosecutor’s Office.

Because of all this, the Parliament calls on the Commission to make full use of the tools available so as to address the breaches of EU values in Greece. This includes, on the one hand, the assessment of EU funds use under the Common Provisions Regulation in line with the Charter of Fundamental Rights and in relation to the non-implementation of judgments by the European courts in line with the Rule of Law Conditionality Regulation.

MEPs have repeatedly raised concerns about the state of media freedom in Greece, based on the Council of Europe’s Safety of Journalists Platform and the World Press Freedom Index. Furthermore, the 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index shows a worrying decline in issues concerning the rule of law.

Related: Greece ‘Worst Performing EU Country’ on Corruption, Media Freedom

Skeletal Remains Locked in Eternal Embrace at ‘China’s Pompeii’

Tasos Kokkinidis
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Skeletal Remains Locked in Eternal Embrace at ‘China’s Pompeii’
China's Pompeii
Skeletal remains dating back 4,000 years huddled together. Public Domain

Skeletal remains locked in eternal embrace are some of the poignant exhibits of a museum at a prehistoric archaeological site in central China dubbed “China’s Pompeii”.

In 2015, the Lajia Ruins Museum in Qinghai Province unveiled preserved artifacts that include remains of the ancient civilization that perished in sudden death.

Among the display were skeletal remains dating back 4,000 years huddled together, apparently protecting each other at the time of the disaster.

One scene frozen in time that touches the heart of many museum visitors shows a mother apparently wrapping her arms around her son in a protective embrace. Another pair of skeletons were also found covering each other while lying down on the floor.

China Pompeii
The excavation process unearthed a total of 20 skeletons, each bearing the physical marks of distress caused by external forces. Public Domain

World’s oldest known noodles discovered at China’s Pompeii

The ruined buildings strewn with debris served as a backdrop, allowing archaeologists to piece together a tragic tale. It became evident that the villagers residing along the Yellow River were defenseless against the immense power of Mother Nature.

In addition to the skeletal remains, tools and homeware, archaeologists also unearthed thin yellow strands in an upturned pot, believed to be the world’s oldest known noodles.

While the noodles were initially believed to be made from a combination of foxtail and broomcorn millet, further experiments revealed that the Lajia noodles might have incorporated other starches, possibly barley or wheat. The inhabitants of Lajia used stone knives to process, peel and cut these grains.

The Lajia site, discovered in 1981, covers an area of 680,000 square meters in China’s upper Yellow River region.

The site is associated with the Qijia culture, which was known for its agricultural economy during the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age periods.

Two main theories emerged from the scientific analysis of the site.

The first theory suggested that the village was struck by a devastating earthquake. The seismic activity also triggered the formation of a natural dam upstream on the Yellow River, resulting in an accumulation of water.

Several months later, the dam collapsed, unleashing a catastrophic flood that engulfed the village. The presence of sediment and the concurrent damage from the earthquake indicated that these events likely occurred in the same year.

The second theory pointed to flash floods and mudslides as the culprits behind the villagers’ demise, as these natural phenomena have been recurrent in the region throughout history.

The village of Lajiazhen offered valuable insights into the lives of ancient Chinese peasants, revealing their agricultural practices and their keeping of animals for sustenance and religious purposes. Moreover, this is the site of the above-mentioned extraordinary find in 2005—an overturned pot containing the world’s oldest noodles.

Due to its significance, the site has gained widespread renown and is often referred to as “China’s Pompeii.”

Related: Pompeii Excavation Uncovers Skeletal Remains From Vesuvius Earthquake

Shark Attack Deaths Dramatically Rising, New Data Show

Abdul Moeed
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Shark Attack Deaths Dramatically Rising, New Data Show
ISAF reports that deaths from shark attacks rise dramatically
ISAF reports there has been a dramatic increase in shark attack deaths. Credit: Terry Goss / Wikipedia / CC BY-SA 3.0

In 2023, there were more unprovoked shark attacks globally, leading to more deaths compared to the year before.

Based on the International Shark Attack File (ISAF) at the University of Florida, there were 69 unprovoked shark bites in 2023. This number is higher than the average of 63 attacks over the past five years but still follows the overall trend.

Last year, ten unprovoked attacks turned deadly, which is twice as many as the previous year. Most of these tragic incidents happened in Australia, making up 40 percent of all fatalities, even though Australia only had 22 percent of the total attacks.

In addition to Australia, there were confirmed deaths from shark attacks in the United States (2), the Bahamas, Egypt, Mexico, and New Caledonia.

Non-fatal bites also occurred in Costa Rica, Colombia, Brazil, New Zealand, the Seychelles, Turks and Caicos, Ecuador on the Galápagos Islands, and South Africa, according to ISAF.

Gavin Naylor, director of the Florida Program for Shark Research at the Florida Museum of Natural History, mentioned that the number of bites falls within the usual range, but the increase in fatalities is concerning.

USA experienced 52 percent of all shark attack incidents globally

In the United States, there were 36 unprovoked attacks, making up 52 percent of all incidents globally. Moreover, two of these attacks, one in California and another in Hawaii, resulted in fatalities. Florida continued to have the highest number of shark bites among all states, with sixteen reported attacks.

The ISAF focuses mainly on unprovoked attacks in its annual report. These attacks occur when a shark, without any human provocation, attacks someone while in its natural habitat.

This excludes instances in which humans intentionally approach sharks or swim where bait is being used to attract fish. Unprovoked attacks are essential for understanding shark behavior, according to ISAF.

“We’re biologists, and we want to understand the natural behavior of the animals—not the unnatural behavior,” Naylor said.

ISAF’s records noted 22 more attacks last year that were provoked either intentionally or unintentionally. Spearfishing was the most common activity of victims during provoked attacks.

Three fatalities of surfers in Southern Australia

In 2023, there were three deaths at a single remote surfing spot off the southern coast of Australia. The Eyre Peninsula, famed for its rugged, virgin beaches and incredible surf breaks, attracts surfers despite its challenging accessibility and navigation.

The area is also inhabited by seal colonies and has a large population of white sharks, as reported by ISAF.

“If a white shark is going after a seal and the seal knows it, the white shark hasn’t got a chance,” Naylor said. “Seals are really agile, so the only ones that get caught are the ones that are goofing off and flopping around on the surface minding their own business. And that’s kind of what a surfer looks like.”

Shares of Athens Airport Make Spectacular Debut in the Stock Exchange

Tasos Kokkinidis
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Shares of Athens Airport Make Spectacular Debut in the Stock Exchange
Airport Athens El_Venizelos
Heavy trading of more than 50 million euros at the Athens Stock Exchange on Wednesday. Credit: Greek Reporter

The Athens International Airport (AIA) shares made a spectacular debut on the Athens Stock Exchange on Wednesday, with its price rising more than 14 percent in midday transactions in heavy trading of more than 50 million euros.

This follows after Greece completed a major privatization last Friday, selling its 30 percent stake in the biggest airport operator in the country during an initial public offering, releasing the shares on the Athens stock exchange.

The trade started at €9.40, which proved to be higher than the initial IPO price of €8.20 (for which specific investors could buy before the stocks were made available to the public). The initial price implied a market capitalization of €2.46 billion for the airport.

The initial public offering drew high demand, raising €785 million for Greece’s state HRADF privatization fund for selling the state-owned 30 percent of the 23-year-old airport.

The success is seen as one of the latest signs that Greece’s economy is very much back on track after suffering serious setbacks ten years ago due to the financial crisis.

“Huge success” for Athens Airport and the Athens Stock Exchange

Greek National Economy and Finance Minister Kostis Hatzidakis, in addressing a ceremony for the listing of AIA on the main market, said it was a huge success both for the company and the Athens Stock Exchange and a historic moment for the country’s course.

He noted that the Greek state will collect 785 million euros from the IPO and stressed that the success of the Athens Airport, along with a series of other privatizations (National Bank, Eurobank, Alpha Bank, Helleniq Energy, Attica Road, etc.) reflected investors’ confidence in the Greek economy.

Athens Exchange Group CEO G. Kontopoulos said the listing of Athens International Airport on the market was pivotal not only for the company and the stock market but for the Greek economy as well, and it sends a message about Greece’s investment dynamism.

He added that the listing is the largest in the last eighteen years, adding 2.5 billion euros to the market’s capitalization.

Ioannis Paraschis, CEO of AIA, said the listing on the Athens Stock Exchange was a milestone for the company, adding that the airport will offer high-quality services, creating value for shareholders and the Greek economy in general.

Passenger traffic sets record in 2023

In late November, Greece passed the final hurdle when the European Commission approved the plan for the listing of Athens International Airport on the Stock Exchange.

Passenger traffic at the Athens International Airport set a new record in 2023, totaling 28,174,150 passengers, breaking the twenty-eight million passengers barrier for the first time and surpassing the previous 2019 record of 25.57 million.

The number of flights totaled 241,604 in 2023. This was an increase of 13.2 percent from 2022 and 7.1 percent from 2019. Both domestic and international flights rose 7.4 percent and 18.1 percent respectively compared with 2022 and rose by 10.5 percent and 4.6 percent, respectively, compared with 2019.

Related: Athens Airport the Best in Europe According to User Ratings

Discovery of Greek Inscription Reveals Home of Saint Peter

Paula Tsoni
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Discovery of Greek Inscription Reveals Home of Saint Peter
Archaeologists cleaning an ancient Greek inscription at el Araj site in Israel.
Discovery of Greek Inscription Reveals Home of Saint Peter Apostle of Jesus. Credit: Facebook / Museum of the Bible

A 1,500-year-old mosaic inscription discovered recently in what was the city of Bethsaida, Israel could be proof that the place was once the home of the apostles of Jesus Christ, Saint Peter and Andrew.

Archeologists from Kinneret College in Israel and Nyack College, NY, led by Prof. Mordechai Aviam and Prof. Steven Notley, have recently uncovered a large Greek inscription during excavations of what is being called the “Church of the Apostles,” a Byzantine period basilica at el Araj/Beit haBek.

The translation of the inscription bolsters the basilica’s identification with the church described by the eighth-century bishop of Eichstatt, Willibald, the first known Englishman to visit the Holy Land, who reported a church built over the house of Saint Peter and Andrew in his travel logs.

While traveling from Capernaum to Kursi, Willibald stayed overnight at a place he was told, “is Bethsaida from which came Peter and Andrew. There is now a church where…their house [previously was].”

Greek inscription mentions Saint Peter Apostle of Jesus Christ

The inscription was translated by Prof. Leah Di Segni of Hebrew University and Prof. Yaakov Ashkenazi of Kinneret College in the latest press release of the excavation project, which explains the findings of the season.

It references a donor, “Constantine, the servant of Christ,” and continues with a petition for intercession by Saint Peter, “chief and commander of the heavenly apostles,” a title routinely used by Byzantine Christian writers to refer to the Apostle Peter.

Framed with a round medallion made of two lines of black tesserae, the inscription forms part of a larger mosaic floor in the church’s sacristy that is partly decorated with floral patterns, the excavation project’s announcement explains.

“This discovery is our strongest indicator that Peter had a special association with the basilica, and it was likely dedicated to him,” said Steven Notley, academic director of the dig. “Since Byzantine Christian tradition routinely identified Peter’s home in Bethsaida, and not in Capernaum as is often thought today, it seems likely that the basilica commemorates his house.”

In search of ancient Bethsaida

The El Araj Excavation Project is a joint project of the Kinneret Institute for Galilee Archeology at Kinneret College and Nyack College, sponsored by the Center for the Study of Ancient Judaism and Christian Origins (CSAJCO), the Museum of the Bible, the Lanier Theological Library Foundation, and HaDavar Yeshiva (HK).

“One of the goals of this dig was to check whether we have at the site a layer from the 1st century, which will allow us to suggest a better candidate for the identification of Biblical Bethsaida,” says archaeologist Mordechai Aviam, archaeological director of the excavation.

“Not only did we find significant remains from this period, but we also found this important church and the monastery around it” he adds.

Last lost city of the Bible

The press release points out that so far, the Roman remains that have been excavated at el Araj bear witness to the testimony of Flavius Josephus in Jewish Antiquities that the village became a small polis called Julias which existed until the 3rd century AD.

Altogether, these findings continue to strengthen the identification of el Araj/Beit haBek with the ancient Jewish town of Bethsaida, the last lost city of the Bible.

According to the New Testament, Bethsaida was the hometown of the apostles of Jesus Christ, Saint Peter, St Andrew, and St Philip where Jesus reportedly restored a blind man’s sight at a place just outside the ancient village (Gospel of Mark) and miraculously fed five thousand nearby (Gospel of Luke).

Three places have been considered as the possible location of Biblical Bethsaida, namely the Bedouin village of Messadiye; the deserted settlement of El-Araj; and the archaeological site of Et-Tell.

UN Urges UK to Halt Extradition of Julian Assange to the US

Tasos Kokkinidis
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UN Urges UK to Halt Extradition of Julian Assange to the US
Assange extradition to US
Activists campaign against the continued detention of Julian Assange in Britain’s high-security Belmarsh Prison and his extradition. Credit: Alisdare Hickson, CC BY-SA 4.0

The UN special rapporteur on torture, Alice Jill Edwards, urged the UK on Tuesday to halt the possible extradition of Julian Assange to the US.

Edwards urged authorities to heed his appeal as he highlighted Assange’s fragile mental state and cited grave concerns that extradition could subject him to treatment tantamount to torture or forms of cruel punishment.

“Julian Assange suffers from a long-standing and recurrent depressive disorder. He is assessed as being at risk of committing suicide,” said Edwards. “In the United States, he faces numerous charges, including under the Espionage Act of 1917 for alleged unlawful releases of diplomatic and other cables and documents via WikiLeaks.”

Assange, whose extradition proceedings have drawn international attention, faces prolonged solitary confinement and a potential prison term of up to 175 years if convicted.

“The risk of being placed in prolonged solitary confinement, despite his precarious mental health status, and to receive a potentially disproportionate sentence raises questions as to whether Mr. Assange’s extradition to the United States would be compatible with the UK’s international human rights obligations,” said Edwards.

“I call on the Government of the United Kingdom to carefully review Mr. Assange’s extradition order to ensure full compliance with the absolute and non-derogable prohibition of refoulement to torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.”

The impending decision looms large as Assange’s final domestic appeal approaches before the High Court in London on Feb. 20 – 21.

Assange faces 18 criminal counts in the US

Assange, the controversial figure behind WikiLeaks, faces eighteen criminal counts in the US for his alleged role in unlawfully obtaining and disclosing classified documents related to national defense, including evidence exposing alleged war crimes.

The US authorities accuse Assange of conspiring with Army intelligence analyst Chelsea Manning (the former Bradley Manning) to decipher a passcode known as “hash” so that he could get access to classified information inside a Department of Defense computer and make US military secrets public.

CIA plan to assassinate Assange

A report published in 2021 revealed how the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of Donald Trump’s presidency plotted to kidnap and potentially assassinate the WikiLeaks founder.

The report detailed how the CIA conceived of ways in which they could kidnap and assassinate Assange and how the agency conducted research as to whether or not such an operation would be legal.

The plan was supposedly headed by former Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, who sources say was enraged after WikiLeaks had released files from the CIA’s hacking project, Vault 7, in 2017.

Those who continue to stand behind Assange state that he was a whistleblower who is responsible for uncovering alleged war crimes in Afghanistan and Iraq and other human rights violations.

His organization, WikiLeaks, published American military video footage back in 2010 which showed a 2007 Apache helicopter attack in Baghdad that killed twelve individuals. Subsequently, the organization published reams of secret military documents and diplomatic cables.

He has been detained in the UK since 2019 and is currently held at Belmarsh prison.

Related: Is Press Freedom in Danger after Assange Ruling?

Rome Unveils Giant Replica of Colossus of Constantine the Great

Tasos Kokkinidis
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Rome Unveils Giant Replica of Colossus of Constantine the Great
Constantine
The 13-metre-high statue of Constantine. Credit: Capitoline Museums

A modern-day reconstruction of the ancient Colossus of Constantine, recreated using 3D modeling technology, was inaugurated on Tuesday at the Capitoline Museums in Rome.

Constantine, also known as Constantine the Great, ruled from 306 to 337 AD and was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and establish Constantinople.

The 13-metre-high statue, on display until 31 December 2025, is a replica of the fourth-century Colossus which once stood in the apse of the Basilica of Maxentius in the Roman Forum.

How the Colossus of Constantine was recreated

The reconstructed statue of the seated emperor, wearing a gilded tunic and holding a scepter and orb, was made after experts digitally scanned the remaining fragments from the original statue – including the head, right arm, right hand, right knee, right shin, a calf fragment, the right and left feet, the wrist and a chest fragment – using the high-resolution data to create 3D models of each piece.

The statue was then reconstructed using resin, polyurethane, and marble powder, gold leaf, and plaster, built around an internal aluminum frame.

The gigantic statue now looms over the gardens at Villa Caffarelli, part of the Capitoline Museums complex, which houses the remaining marble fragments of the original Colossus.

The original Colossus of Constantine, made from marble and gilded bronze, was pillaged and broken before being rediscovered during excavations at the Basilica of Maxentius in the 15th century.

The remaining marble fragments were moved to the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori in the Capitoline Museums in 1471 as part of the donation by Pope Sixtus IV of ancient Roman pieces to the world’s first public museum.

The legacy of Constantine the Great

Constantine was born in 272 in Naissus of Dardania, a city on the Hellespont. In 306, when his father died, he was proclaimed successor to the throne.

In the year 312, upon learning that Maxentius and Maximinus had joined forces against him, he marched into Italy, where, while at the head of his troops, he witnessed the words “By this shalt thou conquer” on a radiant pillar forming a cross in the post-midday sky beneath the sun.

The following night, Jesus Christ appeared to him in a dream and declared to him the power of the Cross and its significance.

When he arose in the morning, he immediately ordered that a labarum be made (which is a banner or standard of victory over the enemy) in the form of a cross, and he inscribed on it the Name of Jesus Christ.

On October 28th, he attacked and conquered Maxentius, who drowned in the Tiber River while fleeing.

The following day, Constantine entered Rome in triumph and was proclaimed Emperor of the West by the Senate while Licinius, his brother-in-law, ruled in the East. However, out of malice, Licinius later persecuted the Christians.

Constantine fought him once and again, and utterly destroyed him in 324. In this manner, he became monarch over the West and East. Under him, and because of him, all the persecutions against the Church ceased. Christianity triumphed and idolatry was overthrown.

In 325, he called the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea, which he himself personally addressed, to create the Creed that forms the belief system of Christians. In 324, in the ancient city of Byzantium, he laid the foundations of the new capital of his realm and solemnly dedicated it on May 11, 330, naming it after himself, Constantinople.

Since the throne of imperial rule was transferred to Constantinople from Rome, it was named New Rome, and the inhabitants of its domain were called Romans; it was thus considered the continuation of the Roman Empire.

Constantine died between May 21st to May 22nd of the year 337, having lived sixty-five years, of which he ruled for thirty-one. His remains were transferred to Constantinople and were buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, which he had constructed.

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