Roman statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero’s admiration for Greece is one of the most nuanced but revealing aspects of his intellectual and cultural identity, reflecting a balance between admiration and disagreement.
His father shared the prevailing view that one either had a Greek education or none at all. Indeed, in 92 BC, when Cicero was fourteen years old, the newly established Roman schools of rhetoric were closed by the censors Crassus and Domitius. Crassus’ reason, according to Cicero, was that the Roman schools were a travesty of their Greek exemplars. As a result, the obvious choice was to receive his education in Greece.
The Roman philosopher and statesman visited Greece in 79 BC at a time when Rome had already conquered Greece and absorbed much of its culture. His education, which he valued highly, was grounded in the teachings of Ancient Greek philosophers, poets, and historians, and he acquired much of his understanding of the theory and practice of rhetoric from the Greek poet Archias.
Cicero translated many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thereby bringing such philosophical works to a wider audience. It was precisely his broad education that connected him to the traditional Roman elite.
Yet his admiration of Ancient Greeks was complex. On the one hand, Cicero revered the philosophy, rhetoric, and literature of Ancient Greece, recognizing them as the foundation of higher intellectual life. On the other hand, he viewed Greeks as morally weak and impractical, prone to excessive intellectualizing and political instability.
Cicero’s admiration for the culture of Ancient Greece
Cicero’s respect for Greek culture is unmistakable and pervasive throughout his works. He openly credits the Greeks as the originators of philosophy, oration, and the arts of discourse. In Tusculan Disputations, he writes, “What is there, either in the pursuit of knowledge or in the discipline of life, that has not been investigated and explained by the Greeks?” This rhetorical question underscores his belief that Greek intellectual achievements are unparalleled. For Cicero, philosophy, especially in its ethical dimension, was a Greek gift that Rome needed in order to refine its moral and civic life.
In his letter to Atticus (Brutus 26.7), he writes about his love for Athens:
“Greece has greater antiquity in all arts, which it not only discovered but also perfected, because the power and abundance of speaking was developed by the Greeks. When I consider Greece, Atticus, your Athens comes to mind especially and shines like a lighthouse. It is here that an orator first appeared, and here that oratory began to be entrusted to monuments and writings.”
His reverence extends particularly to Greek philosophy. Cicero saw himself as a transmitter of Greek thought into the Latin world, often translating and adapting Greek concepts into Roman terms. In De Officiis, he explicitly acknowledges his debt: “I am not translating, but adopting from the Greeks, and choosing from them what seems best.” This statement is revealing. Cicero is not a passive imitator. Rather, he positions himself as an active mediator, selecting and reshaping Greek ideas for Roman purposes. This selective appropriation reflects both admiration and a desire for intellectual independence.
Greek rhetoric also occupies a central place in Cicero’s thought. He frequently praises Greek orators, especially Demosthenes, whom he considered the ideal model of eloquence. In Brutus, Cicero states, “Among all the Attic orators, Demosthenes stands alone as the prince of eloquence.” For Cicero, the Greek mastery of rhetoric was not merely technical but deeply connected to civic life. Eloquence was a tool for persuasion in public affairs, and in this regard, Greek models were indispensable for any Roman aspiring to political leadership.
Cicero’s personal experience with Greece
The time Cicero spent in Greece was important in shaping his views of the country. The Roman philosopher studied in Athens and Rhodes, immersing himself in Greek education. These formative years left a lasting impression on him, and he maintained lifelong respect for his Greek teachers. Yet, as a statesman later navigating the turbulent politics of the late Roman Republic, he also encountered Greek communities in the provinces, often in contexts of conflict and litigation. These experiences may have reinforced his negative stereotypes of Greeks, particularly in forensic settings where rhetorical advantage was paramount.
It is also important to consider how Cicero’s attitude toward the Greeks evolved over time. In his earlier works, the tone is often more enthusiastic, reflecting the influence of his education in Greece. In later writings, especially during the political crises of the 40s BC, his reflections become more critical and introspective. This shift may be linked to his broader disillusionment with Roman politics and his search for philosophical consolation.
Overall, Cicero’s attitude toward the Greeks cannot be reduced to a simple dichotomy of admiration versus criticism. Rather, it reflects a dynamic interplay between the two. He recognized the Greeks as intellectual superiors in many respects, yet he also asserted the moral and political superiority of Rome. This dual perspective allowed him to appropriate Greek culture without surrendering Roman identity.
In this sense, Cicero embodies a broader cultural moment in which Rome was redefining itself as both heir to and rival of Greece. His writings reveal the complexities of cultural exchange: the admiration that inspires imitation, the anxiety that prompts critique, and the creative tension that produces something new. As he himself suggests in De Officiis, the goal is not mere imitation but thoughtful adaptation—choosing what is best and making it one’s own.
Applause mixed with skepticism
Despite Cicero’s admiration for the Greeks and their culture, there is also skepticism regarding their moral character. One of his recurring criticisms concerns Greek morality. In his speeches, particularly those delivered in the law courts, he often deploys stereotypes of Greek duplicity and unreliability. In Pro Flacco, defending a Roman governor accused by Greek provincials, Cicero remarks, “Testimony of Greeks? What weight can it have? There is no nation less trustworthy in giving evidence.” This sweeping generalization reflects a common Roman prejudice, but in Cicero’s case, it also serves a rhetorical purpose: undermining the credibility of his opponents.
This tension between admiration and distrust is also evident in Cicero’s view of Greek political life. While he admired Greek political theory, especially the works of Plato and Aristotle, he was critical of the instability of Greek states. In De Republica, he contrasts the theoretical brilliance of Greek political thought with the practical failures of Greek governments. Rome, in his view, succeeded where Greece had faltered by creating a mixed constitution that balanced monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. Greek political systems, by contrast, were often prone to factionalism and decline.
Cicero’s ambivalence can also be understood in terms of cultural identity. As a Roman, he was deeply invested in the values of gravitas, dignitas, and virtus—qualities associated with discipline, seriousness, and moral strength. Greek culture, in his portrayal, sometimes appears overly refined, even decadent. In Tusculan Disputations, he criticizes certain Greek philosophers for indulging in abstract speculation at the expense of practical virtue. Philosophy, he insists, must serve life rather than withdraw from it.
Could Greek culture “soften” the Romans?
This critique aligns with a broader Roman concern about the effects of Greek culture on traditional values. The historian Polybius, himself a Greek writing about Rome, observed this tension from the outside. He noted that while the Romans admired Greek culture, they were wary of its potential to soften their character. Later, the Roman satirist Juvenal would echo this sentiment more sharply, writing “Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit”—“Captive Greece took captive her fierce conqueror.” The phrase captures the paradox of cultural conquest: Rome may have conquered Greece militarily, but Greece conquered Rome intellectually.
Modern scholars have examined this tension in depth. The historian Erich Gruen argues that Roman engagement with Greek culture was not passive assimilation but an active process of negotiation. Cicero exemplifies this dynamic. He does not simply imitate Greek models but reinterprets them within a Roman framework. Similarly, classicist T. P. Wiseman has emphasized the performative dimension of Cicero’s references to Greece, noting that they often serve rhetorical and political purposes rather than purely philosophical ones.
Another important aspect of Cicero’s engagement with Greek culture is his concern with language. Writing in Latin, he faced the challenge of expressing Greek philosophical concepts in a language that lacked equivalent terminology. This linguistic effort was itself a form of cultural translation. In De Finibus, Cicero discusses the difficulty of rendering Greek philosophical terms into Latin, yet he insists on the importance of doing so: “Let us, then, venture to speak Latin, even in philosophy.” This statement reflects both confidence in the Latin language and a desire to shape a distinctly Roman intellectual tradition.
Thus, Cicero’s engagement with Greek culture is not a sign of inconsistency but of intellectual vitality. It reflects a mind grappling with the challenges of cultural inheritance and transformation. By simultaneously praising and criticizing the Greeks, Cicero not only defines his own position but also contributes to the enduring dialogue between Greek and Roman civilizations—a dialogue that continues to shape Western thought to this day.
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