Nefertiti was an ancient Egyptian queen who lived around 1370 to 1330 BC. The famous bust of Nefertiti was discovered in 1912 by a team of archaeologists led by the German Ludwig Borchardt in the city of Tell el-Amarna, Egypt.
However, pressure to repatriate the beautiful queen is mounting. Last September, Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass began collecting signatures for her return.
But what was her life like, and why is she such a significant figure in Egyptian history?
Queen Nefertiti’s origins, family, and unique role in Amarna
The origin of Queen Nefertiti is uncertain. Most of what we know about her and her family comes from the tombs of the nobles in Amarna. She was the main wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten (1352–1336 BC) of the 18th Dynasty, and she held the title “Great Royal Wife.” Nefertiti had six daughters with Akhenaten.
In Karnak, Akhenaten built many structures, and in their decoration, Queen Nefertiti holds a special place. The building was dedicated exclusively to her, appearing as Neferneferuaten, while the pharaoh himself is absent from its decoration.
This name was her official title when she co-reigned with Akhenaten, using the throne name Ankhetkheperura, which translates from hieroglyphs as “the ultimate of all is Aten.” Moreover, in reliefs on this building, Nefertiti is depicted in ritual scenes with her daughter Meritaten, performing duties typically reserved for the pharaoh.
Theories of Nefertiti’s reign and her iconic bust
According to a theory first proposed by J.R. Harris in his Acta Orientalia, Nefertiti might be the female pharaoh Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten, who ruled toward the end of the Amarna era. The ancient Egyptian priest, Manetho, mentions in his works a king’s daughter named Akenkeres, who reigned in Egypt for twelve years and one month. The name “Neferneferuaten” translates to “effective for her husband.”
Nefertiti’s name became widely known with the discovery of her bust in 1912 by Borchardt’s team at the ruins of Thutmose’s residence in Amarna. Today, they house this piece in the Neues Museum in Berlin as part of the collection of Egyptian antiquities.
The bust is made of limestone covered with layers of plaster and painted in blue, yellow, red, green, black, and white pigments. Quartz was used for her pupils, although the inset semi-precious stone in the left eye has not survived. The queen wears a golden tiara and her iconic blue crown, or khepresh, traditionally worn by kings in battle and rituals.
Akhenaten’s religious revolution and the rise of Aten worship
Pharaoh Akhenaten, originally named Amenhotep IV (or Amenophis IV in Greek), changed his name to reflect his dedication to a new deity. He distanced himself from the religious and political center of Thebes, moving the capital to a new city, Aketaten (present-day Amarna), and removing “Amun” from his name.
He added the name of the solar deity Aten, creating the name “Akhenaten,” which translates as “one who works efficiently for Aten.” The city was dedicated to Aten and to the royal couple, Nefertiti and Akhenaten, who were depicted as his descendants.
Furthermore, Akhenaten’s religious reform was an unprecedented innovation, often regarded as a henotheistic cult centered around the solar disc Aten and the divine status of the royal couple. The groundwork for these reforms was laid by Akhenaten’s father, Pharaoh Amenhotep III (1390–1352 BC), who portrayed himself as equal to the Sun god and promoted the idea that he was the “personification” of all the gods of Egypt from whom he descended.
However, Akhenaten did not live long enough for his religious revolution to fully take root, as he died in the seventeenth year of his reign. The last depiction of the Amarna family and Akhenaten dates from the 12th year of his reign in the tomb of Merira II.
The enigmatic power and influence of Queen Nefertiti
Queen Nefertiti held a significant role beside her husband in ruling ancient Egypt, as shown in their iconography. Yet, around the 12th year of Akhenaten’s reign, the great royal wife appears to “disappear” from records and monuments. Nonetheless, it is almost certain that Queen Nefertiti did not die before Akhenaten. According to The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Nefertiti, was a truly royal wife. Additionally she played an active role in power as co-regent-pharaoh during her husband’s later years.
This would have been extremely revolutionary for her time. The mysteries persist around Akhenaten’s feminine features and his wife’s role in the kingdom. Many scholars believe that the radical reforms of Atenism brought a reconsideration of gender roles in Egyptian society. Scholars such as Sabrina Wade suggest that Akhenaten may have intentionally adopted feminine features. She claims that as the “supreme god,” he needed to embody both genders. As Wade explains:
“While it is impossible to say exactly why Akhenaten founded Atenism, evidence suggests that he aimed to further deify himself. The Great Hymn to the Aten declares him as Aten’s son, with dominion over the dead, assuming Osiris’ role.”
“Amarna Period artwork depicts Akhenaten with an androgynous appearance, seemingly inhuman. It portrays him with his elongated skull and blend of male and female attributes. Determined to embody Aten’s life-giving, father-mother role, Akhenaten sought to establish himself as a living god. That would make him the sole god to be worshiped by the people forever.”
The enduring mystery of Nefertiti’s influence and legacy
During Akhenaten’s reign, Nefertiti held unprecedented power. Furthermore, some historians suggest that she may have remained alive and influential among the younger royals after her husband’s death. If so, her influence—and possibly her life—likely ended by the third year of Tutankhaten’s reign (1331 BC).
At that time, the young pharaoh changed his name to Tutankhamun, signifying a return to the worship of Amun and a shift of the capital back to Thebes from Amarna. The story of Nefertiti, along with her husband Akhenaten, remains one of ancient Egypt’s greatest mysteries.
Of particular interest is the “Great Hymn to Aten,” which is a literary creation of the same period dedicated to the god Aten. The God is described as the most important deity of nature and creator of of all. In the last part of the text, translated by Miriam Lichtheim, we read:
You are in my heart,
There is no other who knows you,
Only your son, Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of-Re [Akhenaten],
Whom you have taught your ways and your might.
[Those on] Earth come from your hand as you made them.
When you have dawned they live.
When you set they die;
You yourself are lifetime, one lives by you.
All eyes are on [your] beauty until you set.
All labor ceases when you rest in the west;
When you rise you stir [everyone] for the King,
Every leg is on the move since you founded the Earth.
You rouse them for your son who came from your body.
The King who lives by Maat, the Lord of the Two Lands,
Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of-Re,
The Son of Re who lives by Maat. the Lord of crowns,
Akhenaten, great in his lifetime;
(And) the great Queen whom he loves, the Lady of the Two Lands,
Nefer-nefru-Aten Nefertiti, living forever.
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