The unique Spartan diarchy was a model of dual kingship that existed only in the city-state of Sparta in Ancient Greece.
This system, in which two kings from separate royal dynasties ruled simultaneously, was as distinctive as the city of fearless warriors itself. Its origins are highly debated among scholars and difficult to verify. According to legend, the Delphi oracle advised that both brothers share the throne.
The two dynasties, the Agiads and the Eurypontids, traced their authority to Sparta’s historical, social, and military traditions. However, historians continue to debate how successful this form of kingship truly was.
Ancient Sparta was a warrior culture where boys began harsh military training at age seven, cultivating fearless dedication to their homeland. Their values became legendary at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC, when King Leonidas, an Agiad, and his 300 Spartans, alongside 6,000 Greek allies, faced the massive Persian army under King Xerxes I.
Despite being vastly outnumbered, Leonidas and his men refused to retreat, fighting fiercely and reportedly killing around 20,000 Persians before falling to the last man—securing their immortal place in history.
The origins of the Spartan diarchy
When Leonidas, an Agiad, fought at Thermopylae, another king—Leotychidas II of the Eurypontid family—also sat on Sparta’s throne. The origins of the Spartan diarchy are difficult to verify, but the most plausible explanation traces back to a time when two smaller settlements merged and agreed to share power between two dynasties.
There is also a mythological interpretation. Around 1100 BC, the Dorians invaded Lacedaemon and the Peloponnese. Their princes claimed descent from Heracles, known as the Heraclids: brothers Kresphontes and Temenos, Aristodemos, and his twin sons, Eurysthenes and Prokles.
After eliminating the Atreids—the house of Agamemnon and Menelaus who had held the scepter of Zeus—the Heraclids became the last Greek royalty with a divine claim to power.
They divided the Peloponnese among themselves: Temenos took the northeast, Kresphontes Messenia, and Laconia went either to Eurysthenes and Prokles or to their father, Aristodemos. The debate over whether Aristodemos was alive during the Dorian invasion marks the start of the myth.
The Lacedaemonians likely decreed that Aristodemos led them to their land, not his sons. When Aristodemos died, tradition held that the eldest son should succeed him. However, since his sons were twins, their mother claimed she didn’t know who was older—hoping both would become kings.
The Delphi oracle advises that both be kings
The Lacedaemonians (Spartans) consulted the oracle at Delphi to decide which of the twin brothers would rule. The oracle advised that both be appointed kings but that the elder should receive greater privileges. This, however, did not settle the dispute.
Eventually, a mysterious man from Messenia suggested they observe which twin the mother fed and washed first. If she did so randomly, she was telling the truth and did not know who was born first. If she consistently attended to one first, that child was the elder. The mother consistently fed and washed Eurysthenes first, confirming him as the elder.
Thus, one king of Sparta descended from Eurysthenes, the other from Prokles. Despite Eurysthenes’ seniority, both kings held equal power in principle. The dynasties were named the Agiads, after Eurysthenes’ son, and the Eurypontids, after Prokles’ grandson.
Spartan oligarchy and the diarchy
In Sparta, kingship was rooted in divine lineage. According to Herodotus, Spartan kings had a “double nature,” entitling them to double portions at public and private meals. Their authority rested on three main functions.
First, the kings held a priestly role, presiding over sacrifices and customarily receiving the skins and chins of all sacrificial animals, whether present or not. Second, they served as military leaders. Aristotle described Spartan kingship as “a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship.” Typically, one king led the army into battle, protected by a hundred elite hoplites, while the other stayed in the city to guard against helot revolts.
Third, the kings symbolized the fertility and continuity of the state. They were expected to be physically whole, representing the vitality of Sparta. Upon a king’s death, one man and one woman from each household mourned publicly for ten days, halting all public business.
Despite their prestige, Spartan kings were not absolute rulers. Sparta was an oligarchy with democratic elements. All male citizens voted in the “Ekklesia” (assembly), which decided on matters including the selection of the “Gerousia,” a council of 28 elders over 60, elected for life. The two kings also sat on the “Gerousia,” which chose the “Ephors”—five officials elected annually from all citizens. These bodies held significant judicial authority, serving as the highest civil and criminal courts.
Was the diarchy system efficient?
The diarchy ended when King Kleomenes of the Agiad dynasty became a tyrant. After sacking Theban Megalopolis in 223 BC, he freed the enslaved helots, eliminated opposition—including the “Ephors”—and placed his brother Euclidas on the Eurypontid throne.
Following Kleomenes’ defeat by Antigonus III of Macedon in 222 BC, the Spartans annulled and reversed his reforms. The diarchy briefly returned with Agiad Agesipolis III and Eurypontid Lycurgus ruling together, but in 215 BC, Lycurgus deposed Agesipolis and ruled alone, marking the end of this effective political system.
Herodotus provides the earliest account of Spartan governance, emphasizing the balance between kings, the “Gerousia,” “Ephors,” and the assembly. He stressed that kings were not absolute rulers and faced legal scrutiny, citing King Kleomenes’ trial, Leotychidas’ condemnation, and Demaratus’ deposition.
Plutarch initially described Sparta’s dual kingship as “some amalgamation of communities in circumstances wholly obscure to us.” Later, he noted, “What is remarkable and unique, however, is that Sparta maintained two distinct royal lines as far down as the late 3rd century.”
Overall, the diarchy successfully maintained Sparta’s power and influence for centuries. It provided internal stability, political continuity, and a check on tyranny. If one king caused problems, the other could limit the damage. Throughout its existence, Spartans effectively managed helot uprisings and internal threats.
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