The ancient Egyptians believed that life on Earth was only part of an eternal journey that ended not in death but in everlasting joy in the afterlife. People were born on Earth due to the benevolence of the gods and deities known as the “Seven Hathors,” who determined their fate after birth.
The soul was expected to lead a life of truth, justice, and adherence to cosmic order (Maat) within the confines of its physical body. Death represented a transition to another realm. If a person successfully passed the judgment of the gods, they would attain eternal life in a paradise known as the Field of Offerings, or A’aru, reflecting a mirror image of their earthly existence.
Every ancient Egyptian’s goal was to make his mortal life worthy of eternal life, and they did their best to achieve that. Death was only a transition stage, not a completion, and opened the way to the possibility of eternal happiness.
The journey from death to the afterlife
In ancient Egyptian belief, the soul was thought to become trapped in the body after death due to its familiarity with its earthly home. The inscriptions and imagery found on the walls of tombs, known as the Sarcophagus Texts, Pyramid Texts, and the Egyptian Book of the Dead, along with the amulets associated with the body, served to remind and reassure the soul of its continued journey and to guide it out of the body.
The soul would make its way to the Hall of Truth (also known as the “hall of two truths”) of Anubis, the guide of the dead. They would wait with others for the judgment of Osiris, the god of fertility, life, death, resurrection, and the afterlife.
The ancient Egyptians had different ideas of what would happen next. But in the most popular story, the soul would make the Negative Confessions before Osiris, Thoth, Anubis, and the Forty-Two Judges. The Negative Confessions are a list of 42 sins against oneself. After the Confessions, Osiris, Thoth, Anubis, and the Forty-Two Judges would make a decision.
Should the confession be acknowledged, the soul would offer its heart to Osiris, to be weighed on golden scales against the white feather of truth. A heart lighter than the feather allowed progression to the next stage, while a heavier heart would be consumed by Ammut, the female devourer of the deceased, leading to the ultimate “Great Death,” or non-existence.
There was no concept of “hell” in the Egyptian afterlife. Non-existence was considered a far worse fate than any form of eternal damnation. If the soul successfully passed the Weighing of the Heart (Psychostasis), it would proceed along a path leading to Lake Lily (Lake of Flowers). There are various interpretations of this journey. Some suggest that the soul might encounter dangers that it must evade with the assistance of the gods, while others maintain that the path would be straightforward.
On the shore of Lake Lily, the soul would encounter Hraf-Hef, the glum divine ferryman. The soul would have to find some way to be kind to Hraf-Hef, regardless of the nasty or cruel remarks the god made to continue the journey. Having passed this test, the soul would reach the “Field of Reeds” where one could enjoy an eternity of the life he had left behind on earth in the presence of his beloved people, animals, and most beloved objects, all in the direct presence of the gods.
Mummification
Ancient Egyptians believed that preserving the body in good condition after death was essential for the deceased’s smooth transition and activity in the afterlife. The early practice of embalming in Egypt, dating back to approximately 5500 BC, reflects an inherent recognition of the body’s significance.
Embalming, however, was not simply a practical method of preserving the human body but was part of a broader ritual and religious process. The methods of mummification or treatment of the dead body used by the ancient Egyptians are called embalming.
Using special processes, the Egyptians removed all moisture from the body, leaving it in a dry form that could not easily decompose. It was important in their religion to preserve the dead body as much as possible. So today we can see the mummified body of an Egyptian and get a good idea of what he or she wanted in life 3,000 years ago. This is because the ancient Egyptians believed that the mummified body was the home of this soul or spirit. If the body is destroyed, the spirit can be lost.
The idea of ”spirit” was complex and involved three spirits: the ka, ba, and akh. The ka, a “double” of the individual, would remain in the tomb and would need the offerings and objects there. The ba, or “soul,” was free to fly out of the tomb and return to it. And it was the akh, perhaps translated as “spirit,” that had to travel through the Underworld to the Final Judgment and entry into the Afterlife. For the Egyptians, all three hypostases of the soul were essential.
Ancient Egyptians practiced their famous mummification throughout their history. The first mummies from prehistoric times were probably accidental. Since Egypt receives almost no significant rainfall, the dry sand and air preserved some bodies that were buried in shallow pits dug in the sand.
Around 2600 BC, during the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties, the Egyptians probably began to deliberately mummify the dead. The practice continued and developed for over 2,000 years, until the Roman period (c. 30 BC).The quality of mummification varied according to its price within any given period. The best-prepared and preserved mummies date from the 18th to 20th dynasties of the New Kingdom (c. 1570–1075 BC) and include those of Tutankhamun and other known pharaohs.
During the Old Kingdom, the entire process was limited to removing the internal organs except for the brain and wrapping the dead body in linen cloth soaked in plaster. This method emphasized the deceased’s naturalistic characteristics, which were sometimes further enhanced by adding outer clothing and placing the limbs in a prominent position.
The same method, but with the simultaneous removal of the internal organs, continued during the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom with an additional innovation in the external appearance and iconography of the mummified relic, namely the disappearance of naturalistic representations. The body was completely encased in fabric strips, hiding the limbs. A funerary mask covered the face and shoulders, creating an ideal form known as a shah. The internal organs were specially treated and stored in canopic jars within the burial chamber.
During the New Kingdom, and particularly in the Third Intermediate Period, embalming reached its zenith. Mummies from this era, especially those of monarchs and influential royal family members, were adorned with elaborate external decorations and featured highly idealized traits. Special attention was given to the preparation of their limbs, and the faces were covered with intricate masks crafted from precious materials. The technique for removing the brain was mastered, with the other organs being individually wrapped in linen before being placed back into the body cavity.
Mummies are among the most famous images the general public tends to have about Ancient Egypt, thanks to Hollywood movies about mummies rising from the dead.
Egyptian funerals and tombs
In ancient times, Egyptians buried the dead in the ground. The hot and dry climate made it easier to preserve the bodies. Corpses were interred in a fetal position. The ancient Egyptians believed that the burial process was crucial in ensuring a good afterlife. They also held that the dead retained emotions similar to when they were alive, such as anger, and could harbor resentments against the living. Given the importance of the deceased, it is evident why the Egyptians treated them with such respect.
Less affluent Egyptians also wanted to ensure a proper funeral for their loved ones. Such a burial would involve burying the body in the desert, wrapping it in cloth, and accompanying it with everyday objects. Although some could pay for mummification, most did not because they didn’t have the means. The quality of mummification depended on the means of the deceased person’s family. The poor were often buried in mass graves without any embalming procedure.
The tombs were important as well because that was the place where the dead bodies would be protected. Along with their protection, they would have with them all the goods they would need for the afterlife. It was customary for the tomb of the deceased to be located near the community where he or she resided. It was important though that it should be in a dry area, such as the desert.
In the king’s case, however, the tomb was built in a specific place that had great sanctity. Funerary complexes, whether for kings or private individuals, shared fundamental architectural and functional features. Those features are rooted in Egyptian funerary philosophy due to the rarity of individual burials.
The tombs were comprised of: A. Burial chamber, where the coffin containing the body and funerary objects were placed. B. The sanctuary for offerings to the deceased. The sanctuary in royal tombs transitioned from a hall into a distinct temple constructed away from the tomb. More specifically, each tomb consisted of an underground space, the funerary chamber, for the burial of the deceased, and an above-ground structure, the funerary sanctuary, where the funerary events, sacrifices, and offerings in honor of the deceased took place.
They would secure the burial chamber by strategically placing the sarcophagus to guard against looters and adventurers eager for the valuable funerary offerings. This protection was reinforced through several methods, including inscribing curses and deterrent verses on the walls. Unlike the dark, enclosed, and secluded subterranean chamber, the funerary sanctuary remained accessible to priests and relatives of the deceased daily. It was well-lit and actively utilized for performing daily funerary rituals.
Pharaohs were destined for ascension to the celestial realms to join the gods, unlike ordinary, average Egyptians whose burial preserved their memory. Consequently, a Pharaoh’s tomb—be it a majestic pyramid or an intricately carved tomb in the Valley of the Kings—served not merely as a static dwelling for the afterlife but as a vessel of eternal rebirth and transformation.
Evolution of funerary monuments
Ancient Egyptian kings began building their pyramids upon ascending to the throne. The pyramid, along with providing protection from tomb robbery and constituting a worthy monument for the king, was also religiously significant. The pyramid shape dates back to early observations of the Nile, where continuous floods left behind mud that gradually formed mounds resembling pyramids. The Egyptians considered this fertile layer of mud a symbol of life and reproduction. They named the top layer Benben.
Benben later referred to the stone shaped like a pyramid, believed to be struck by the first rays of the sun. Thus, the pyramid’s shape was incorporated into Egyptian religion. The pyramids were white, and smooth and reflected the rays of light, creating an optical effect.
The king utilized these light rays to journey to the Celestial realm, securing eternal life. The pyramids exemplify the social hierarchy of Pharaoh’s society, where he resided at the apex, commanding his subjects through its grandeur.
The first pyramid built was the Step Pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser at Saqqara, dating back to the 3rd Dynasty around 2650 BC. The pyramid began as a mastaba and terraces were gradually added. Djoser was the first pharaoh to use stone to construct his step pyramid. Later, Sneferu built three pyramids at Dahshur (the Red Pyramid and the Pyramid at Meidum). Pyramid construction rapidly developed during his reign, leading to the construction of the Great Pyramid of Khufu, the pinnacle of the Old Kingdom and one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
The Pyramid of Khufu and those of Khafre and Menkaure are the three best-known Egyptian pyramids at Giza. There are 118 confirmed Egyptian pyramids, and most were built as tombs for pharaohs and their wives (in smaller pyramids) during the Old and Middle Kingdoms.
Personal belongings for the afterlife
Throughout ancient Egyptian history, while the types of offerings changed, their purpose of protecting the deceased and providing them with what they needed for the afterlife remained constant. All Egyptians were interred with grave goods considered useful in the afterlife from the earliest periods of Egyptian history. The simplest of these offerings were everyday objects, such as eating utensils, combs, various other items, and food.
Wealthier Egyptians could afford to be buried with jewelry, furniture, and other valuables. On the downside, this made their tombs prime targets for grave robbers. As burial customs evolved during the Old Kingdom (3rd millennium BC), the wealthy were buried in wooden or stone coffins. On the other hand, the amount of offerings decreased. Also, the rectangular coffin, brightly painted and often containing an offering formula, became the norm. Everyday objects were not included in the tomb during this period.
New objects were introduced into the burials at the end of the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC), such as the first ushabtis and scarabs that were placed where the heart was located. The ushabtis were statuettes whose size varied, starting from a few centimeters and could reach up to half a meter. They were made of stone, wood, wax, metal, glass, clay, copper, faience, etc. Their role was quite complex and closely intertwined with the worldview of the ancient Egyptians. Thus, they took on the role of servants and assistants of the deceased in the afterlife, performing manual and agricultural work instead. They were often depicted holding agricultural baskets or tools for this reason.
Everyday objects and magical objects (such as amulets) to protect the living reappeared in tombs during this era. An example is the scarab amulet, an insect associated with the god Khepri, representing the sun at sunrise. Some old burial customs changed in the New Kingdom (1600-1100 BC). For example, the body-shaped coffin became the norm, while the tradition of placing an ushabti in the tomb continued.
Under Ramses II and after, tombs did not contain everyday objects. The offerings mainly consisted of objects specially made for burial. Also, the number of ushabtis increased in burials in the following periods, reaching 400 in some burials. The deceased might also be interred with various magical statuettes, supplementing the ushabtis, to offer protection against malevolent forces.
Finally, the interior of the chamber is decorated with relief or written representations and hieroglyphs that provide information about the deceased’s name, position or responsibilities, daily tasks, and even his burial ceremony or the subsequent cult that his descendants will continue, honoring him after his death.
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