A hidden language problem in archaeology may be affecting how researchers understand ancient humans and their behavior. A new study found that scientists often use overlapping terms to describe prehistoric sites, raising concerns about how they classify and interpret evidence. Researchers warn that unclear terminology could lead to different conclusions about the same discoveries.
The study, led by Jovan Galfi, used artificial intelligence to analyze 405 scientific papers. The findings suggest that commonly used archaeological terms are not always clearly distinguished, making comparisons between prehistoric sites more difficult.
Four common archaeological terms show significant overlap
Archaeologists rely on layers of soil and sediment to establish timelines and reconstruct human activity. These deposits often contain stone tools, animal bones, and other evidence of prehistoric life. However, the study identified considerable overlap in four terms: “layer,” “level,” “horizon,” and “occupation.”
A “layer” generally describes a deposit of sediment, while an “occupation” suggests human presence or activity during a particular period. The distinction matters because a single deposit may contain remains from several periods. Treating them as evidence of one occupation could incorrectly connect objects left behind at different times.
This issue is particularly relevant to Neanderthal archaeological sites, where scientists examine tools and animal remains to reconstruct prehistoric behavior.
AI analysis of 405 studies reveals the pattern
The researchers initially identified 960 records through Google Scholar before selecting 405 peer-reviewed studies.
They examined 14,175 occurrences of eight terms using SciBERT, an artificial intelligence model trained on scientific literature. Four terms described physical materials: “lithic,” “bone,” “flake,” and “charcoal.” The remaining four described archaeological contexts.
Could a hidden language problem be changing what we know about ancient humans?
A new AI study of 405 archaeological papers reveals how inconsistent terminology could shape interpretations of prehistoric discoveries and Neanderthal history. pic.twitter.com/Xg5Bs4gT7D— Tom Marvolo Riddle (@tom_riddle2025) October 13, 2026
Words describing physical materials formed relatively distinct groups. In contrast, contextual terms showed extensive overlap. The researchers found that “layer” and “level” appeared together in 328 papers, about 81% of the collection. Although a separate computer test distinguished these terms with relatively high accuracy, their broader patterns of usage remained closely intertwined. The researchers cautioned that overlapping language does not necessarily prove incorrect usage.
Neanderthal debate shows why definitions matter
The study highlighted a scientific disagreement involving Shukbah Cave, where researchers proposed a connection between Neanderthal remains and stone tools associated with Nubian technology. Other scientists questioned the association, arguing that the deposits may have accumulated over extended periods. This uncertainty made it difficult to establish whether the remains and tools belonged to the same period.
Similar questions arise when examining Neanderthal stone tools in Spain, where dating evidence helps researchers reconstruct ancient human activity.
Researchers call for clearer archaeological standards
Modern archaeological methods allow scientists to examine artifact locations and identify separate periods of activity within geological deposits. Research into ancient stone tools and early human behavior also shows how material evidence can reveal details of prehistoric life. However, newer methods introduce additional ways of defining archaeological units.
Galfi and colleagues recommend that researchers clearly explain how they classify deposits and make those definitions available for scientific review. They also suggest using artificial intelligence to identify inconsistent terminology, while emphasizing that computers cannot independently determine archaeological meaning.
The findings suggest that clearer definitions could help scientists compare prehistoric sites more reliably and avoid drawing conflicting conclusions from the same evidence.
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