Ancient Greek geographer Pausanias wrote that Lycosura in Arcadia was the oldest city in the world (10,000–8,000 BC) —“the first that the sun beheld”—and the place from which the rest of humanity learned how to build cities. In Description of Greece (8.38.1), Pausanias recorded:
“A little farther up is the circuit of the wall of Lycosura, in which there are a few inhabitants. Of all the cities that earth has ever shown, whether on mainland or on islands, Lycosura is the oldest, and was the first that the sun beheld; from it the rest of mankind have learned how to make them cities.”
He added (8.38.2):
“On the left of the sanctuary of Despoina is Mount Lykaion. Some Arcadians call it Olympus, and others Sacred Peak. On it, they say, Zeus was reared. There is a place on Mount Lykaion called Cretea, on the left of the grove of Apollo surnamed Parrhasian. The Arcadians claim that the Crete, where the Cretan story has it that Zeus was reared, was this place and not the island.”
During Pausanias’ lifetime in the 2nd century AD, history, myth, and religion remained deeply intertwined, producing narratives that resonated for centuries. Although Lycosura was not widely known before the 4th century BC, its mythological heritage is as compelling as any preserved in the rich tapestry of Ancient Greek tradition.
The significance of Lycosura is closely tied to the sanctuary of the chthonic goddess Despoina. Dating to the 4th century BC, the sanctuary was constructed in the Doric style and featured a pronaos, the front porch or entrance hall of an Ancient Greek temple, and an inner chamber. It housed a monumental sculptural group: statues of Despoina and Demeter seated on a throne, flanked by standing figures of Artemis and the Titan Anytos.
The mythical history of Lycosura in Arcadia
According to tradition, Lycosura was founded by Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus. Pelasgus himself was said to be the son of Zeus and Niobe, the first mortal woman believed to have consorted with the god. Other traditions describe Pelasgus as an autochthon—a man sprung directly from the earth—or, alternatively, as the son of Palaechthon.
In one of the most infamous episodes of Arcadian myth, Lycaon sought to test Zeus’ divinity by serving him the flesh of a slaughtered child—identified in various accounts as his son Nyktimos, his grandson Arcas, or a Molossian captive. Enraged by the act of impiety, Zeus overturned the table, struck down Lycaon’s fifty sons with thunderbolts, and transformed the king into a wolf. Pausanias further notes that Cleitor, the grandson of Arcas, whose name gave rise to the toponym Arcadia, resided in Lycosura.
In 368 or 367 BC, many cities in the region were consolidated into the powerful city of Megalopolis. The inhabitants of Lycosura, Trapezus, Lycaea, and Tricoloni, however, refused to relocate. While the Arcadians massacred or drove into exile the citizens of Trapezus, the people of Lycosura were spared out of reverence for the Sanctuary of Despoina, where they had sought asylum.
Although Megalopolis subsequently assumed political control over the sanctuary, its religious importance endured. Coins minted in Megalopolis during the Severan period in the early 3rd century AD depict the cult statue group, demonstrating that the worship of Despoina remained significant to both the Arcadians and the inhabitants of Lycosura.
Arcadia and its people
Situated in the heart of the Peloponnese, Arcadia was a rugged, mountainous land rich in forests and deeply embedded in Greek myth. It was closely associated with Pan, the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, nature, hunting, and music, as well as the companion of the nymphs. According to Herodotus, Arcadia was inhabited by one of the most ancient tribes of Greece, the Pelasgians.
Myth went even further in emphasizing Arcadia’s antiquity. The Arcadians were said to be older than the moon itself and were known as proselenes (προσέληνοι), meaning “before the moon” or “older than the moon.” This tradition appears in the writings of prominent figures such as Aristotle, forming a narrative thread that stretches across millennia.
The belief that the Arcadians predated the moon was also referenced by later authors, including Apollonius of Rhodes, Statius, Lucian, and Eudoxus of Cnidus. Plutarch further elaborated that the Arcadians were believed to share a kinship with oak trees, as they were thought to have sprung directly from the earth at the time the first oak took root. Such imagery reinforced the perception of the Arcadians as an extraordinarily ancient people that existed even before the moon.
The legend also revolves around the Greek word for the moon, selene, and the endonym Hellen, suggesting a symbolic connection between the Greek people and the cosmos. This association may have contributed to the portrayal of the Arcadians as primordial beings who predated lunar existence. The notion that the Arcadians were older than the moon illustrates the intricate interplay between myth, cultural identity, and early attempts to understand the natural world.
Because ancient societies lacked modern scientific knowledge, their interpretations of celestial phenomena were often shaped by mythology and imagination rather than empirical observation. Although the idea that the Arcadians preceded the moon is scientifically implausible, it offers valuable insight into the mythological worldview and cultural self-perception of Ancient Greece.
Lycosura today
Today, the remains of Lycosura Arcadia include portions of a stoa, altars, and other architectural structures. The Sanctuary of Despoina is situated approximately 9 kilometers (5.6 miles) from Megalopolis, 6.9 kilometers (4.3 miles) from Mount Lykaion, and 160 kilometers (99.4 miles) from Athens.
A small museum at the archaeological site houses minor finds, as well as fragments of the original cult group, while the surviving portions of the statues of Despoina and Demeter are displayed at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.
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