One of the longest ancient Roman aqueducts in the Mediterranean is preserved in excellent condition in Heraklion, the capital of the island of Crete in Greece.
Constructed around the 2nd century AD, this underground aqueduct drew water from the Fountana Fountain and ran through the area between Skalani and Spilia, ultimately distributing water to Knossos on the outskirts of Heraklion.
During the Egyptian occupation on Crete (1830–1840 AD), it was connected to the existing Morosini Aqueduct to boost the water supply reaching the Morosini Fountain (also known as the Lions Fountain) in central Heraklion.
According to a study by Andreas N. Angelakis, Yannis Christodoulakos, and Vasileios A. Tzanakakis, it is among the largest underground Roman aqueducts on Crete and in the Mediterranean, with a length of roughly 11.3 kilometers (7 miles). While other Roman aqueducts may be longer, this particular one is the most well preserved.
As part of this network, the aqueduct of Agia Irini was constructed in the village of Spilia, south of Knossos Palace. The system includes the spring, the above-ground conduit (carved in rock or built from mixed materials), additional aqueduct channels, and tunnels.
It remains one of the largest Roman underground aqueducts on Crete, hidden beneath the earth, and it is remarkable that it has been preserved in near-perfect condition for its size. Measuring 1,130 meters (3,707 feet) long, it ranks among the largest aqueducts on Crete and in the wider Mediterranean, possibly even as the longest aqueduct tunnel in the region.
The Romans on Crete
When the Romans established control over ancient Greece, they recognized the strategic importance of Crete and conquered the island. Crete was subjugated by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus around 67 BC, following his defeat of the Cretan pirates and an earlier campaign by Mark Antony. The city of Gortys, located on the fertile Mesara plain, became the capital.
The Romans combined Crete with the territory of Cyrenaica on the North African coast to form the senatorial province of Creta et Cyrenaica. The island remained under Roman rule for four centuries (67 BC–330 AD). During this period, Crete flourished, experiencing population growth, prosperity, and greater connectivity with other parts of the Roman Empire.
In addition to Heraklion, cities such as Gortys, Hersonissos, Elyrus, Lyttos, and Kissamos thrived under Roman administration. During this prosperous era, the Romans built several impressive infrastructures on Greece’s Crete, including hydraulic works and major Roman aqueducts to distribute water across the island. They applied engineering techniques inspired by earlier Greek civilizations, including the Minoan, Classical, and Hellenistic periods.
Essentially, the Romans expanded the scale of technological applications to meet the water demands of a growing population. Roman aqueducts were a particularly common and practical solution, reflecting the sophistication of their hydraulic engineering.
Knossos and Heraklion
During the Roman period, the economic relations between Knossos and Heraklion were, according to researchers, apparently strained. The water supply of Heraklion likely depended on that of Knossos.
At the time, Heraklion’s water supply relied on wells and reservoirs, as in earlier periods. However, the continuing population growth in both settlements and their increasing water needs could not be fully met by the spring of Mavrokolympos, which had served Knossos since the Minoan Era.
The Fountana Aqueduct was probably constructed during the Roman period to channel water from a spring located in the Vathis River. It measured around 11.3 kilometers (7 miles), originating from the spring of Fountana. Archaeological evidence indicates that the spring was initially used by the Romans.
The central part of the Fountana Aqueduct was rebuilt during the Egyptian period (approximately 1830–1840). Around 1839, the tunnel in Skalani was reconstructed with a cross-section of 1 × 2 square meters and a length of 11.5 kilometers (7.1 miles). This makes it one of the longest Roman aqueduct tunnels in the Mediterranean region.
The spring is located five kilometers (3 miles) from Knossos at an altitude of 220 meters (721 feet), and the entire supply of high-quality water is still used today to provide water to the city of Heraklion. The famous water bridge in Agia Irini, in the Spilia area 6 kilometers (3.7 miles) from Heraklion, was also constructed as part of this system.
Through this bridge, the Fountana Aqueduct was connected to the Morosini one, built during the Venetian period (around 1204–1669), to enhance Heraklion’s water supply. This system remains in use today, although the original conduit has been replaced with PVC piping.
Roman aqueducts in other parts of Crete, Greece
According to Angelakis, Christodoulakos, and Tzanakakis, aqueduct technology in the Mediterranean reached its peak during the Roman period. Hundreds of aqueducts were built as the island of Crete enjoyed great economic prosperity, enabling extensive construction projects. Compared to Minoan, Etruscan, and Hellenistic aqueducts, Roman aqueducts were more standardized and capable of transporting larger volumes of water.
The technology of Roman aqueducts on Crete, Greece, closely followed designs developed in the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods but on a larger scale, allowing for greater capacity and longer-distance transport.
During the Roman period, aqueducts were found in several cities across Crete, including Apollonia (Agia Pelagia), Hersonissos, Gortys, Elyros, Diktynna, Falasarna, the Fountana (Skalani tunnel), Ierapetra, Ini, Kasteliana, Lappa, Lassea, Syia, Lyttos, Minoa (Marathi), Pachyammos, Tarra (Agia Roumeli), and Tholos (Kavousi).
Roman aqueducts were usually constructed as buried masonry canals with a rectangular inner profile and a semicircular vault. Larger tunnels were high enough to allow workers to pass through. Structures such as bridges (e.g., Gortys), inverted siphons (e.g., Lyttos), and tunnels (e.g., Fountana in Skalani) represent standard engineering applications in these constructions. Roman aqueducts on Crete typically drew water from a single source and delivered it to a single target, most often the water supply of urban areas.
Aqueducts of note on Greece’s island of Crete
Lyttos was a prosperous Roman city despite its challenging high-altitude location. It is known for an impressive Roman aqueduct measuring 22 kilometers (≈13.7 miles) in length. The water source was located on the west side of the Nissimos Plateau, a few kilometers south of the village of Krasi, at an altitude of over 600 meters.
The aqueduct of Hersonissos, which brought water to the city from mountain villages to the south, is thought to have been 14 kilometers (≈8.7 miles) long. An underground reservoir has also been found, measuring 58 meters in length, 22 meters high, and 5.5 meters deep, indicating that Hersonissos had grown into a significant urban center during Roman times.
In the capital, evidence suggests that the city was originally established during the Minoan era. A large-scale aqueduct extending from the Zaros springs to the city of Gortys provided a reliable water supply.
In ancient Syia (modern-day Sougia) on the southern coast of the Selinon district, the Elyros port flourished. There, ruins of Roman buildings and aqueduct remains can still be observed. Archaeological evidence shows that parts of the aqueduct reached heights of up to 5 meters along the route to Sougia.
Researchers conclude that the study of aqueduct principles and hydraulic works from Minoan, Greek, and Roman civilizations demonstrates clear similarities with modern engineering practices. These ancient works are characterized by simplicity, operational robustness, and the absence of complicated controls, highlighting how contemporary technologies descend directly from these early engineering achievements.
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