Ancient fingerprints preserved on China’s Terracotta Army suggest that workers who helped create the famous clay warriors more than 2,200 years ago included women and children. A new study challenges the belief that adult men were the main workers behind the thousands of figures buried with China’s first emperor.
The research, led by Xiaoxi Li and published in the Journal of Cultural Heritage, examined 79 fingerprints preserved in the clay figures. The findings suggest that people of different ages and sexes participated in building the massive burial army.
Ancient fingerprints reveal a diverse Terracotta Army workforce
The Terracotta Army was discovered in 1974 near Xi’an, China. Archaeologists estimate that the burial complex contains about 8,000 life-size soldiers, along with horses and chariots. The figures were created for Qin Shi Huang, who unified China in 221 B.C. and died in 210 B.C. His central burial chamber remains unopened.
The warriors were made from separate clay parts, including heads, arms, legs, and torsos. Workers assembled these pieces before firing them in kilns, leaving behind fingerprints that survived for centuries.
Li and colleagues examined 79 clear fingerprints preserved on 36 warriors from a section of Pit 1 known as T23. The excavation area contains 227 figures. Archaeologists have also continued investigating other parts of the complex, recently uncovering ancient chariots in Pit 2.
Who really built China's 2,200-year-old Terracotta Army?
Ancient fingerprints reveal a surprising clue: Women and children may have helped create the thousands of clay warriors buried with China's first emperor. pic.twitter.com/VJZqN3ATKI— Tom Marvolo Riddle (@tom_riddle2025) October 19, 2026
Most prints appeared on arms, heads, and armor, particularly where workers joined clay pieces or attached decorations. Researchers measured the spacing between fingerprint ridges, which generally increases during childhood and differs between adult men and women.
Using a statistical model, the team estimated that 45% of the prints came from adult men, 33% from adult women, and 22% from children younger than 15. However, the percentages represent fingerprints, not the actual number of workers.
Women and children may have helped produce the warriors
The findings challenge traditional assumptions about labor during China’s Qin dynasty.
Researchers suggested that women and younger workers may have performed tasks such as smoothing clay surfaces, attaching armor decorations, and assisting experienced craftsmen. Some children may have worked alongside women, although the prints cannot establish how responsibilities were divided.
Historical records offer supporting evidence. Ancient Chinese legal documents indicate that women participated in state labor projects. Other records describe apprentices receiving training in government workshops. Accounts of the Qin dynasty also describe a workforce that included craftsmen, prisoners, enslaved people, and laborers recruited from different regions.
Why the fingerprint findings require caution
The researchers warned that their estimates may overstate the involvement of women and children. Experienced craftsmen may have removed fingerprints while smoothing clay, leaving fewer traces than less experienced workers.
Clay also shrinks during drying and firing, affecting fingerprint measurements. The statistical model relied on modern European reference data rather than ancient Chinese populations. Because the study examined only one section of the complex, its findings may not represent the entire workforce.
The team recommends examining additional warriors and developing better reference data to establish who helped construct one of China’s most famous archaeological monuments.
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