While the Kingdom of Lydia was a prominent part of Iron Age Anatolia, its origins may stretch as far back as the Bronze Age, though much about its early history remains a mystery.
Traditionally, Lydia is believed to have emerged in the late eighth or early seventh century BC. However, there is some evidence it may have existed as a distinct entity even earlier. What is the evidence for this, and are there alternative theories?
When Lydia first clearly appears
The Kingdom of Lydia clearly existed by the beginning of the seventh century BC. We can assert this with confidence because there are definite references to King Gyges as a historical ruler of Lydia during that period. He is mentioned not only in the writings of Herodotus, the fifth-century BC Greek historian, but also in contemporary Assyrian records.
Archaeology also reveals monumental architecture at Sardis, the capital of Lydia, dating to this period. Distinctive Lydian pottery can be found not only at Sardis but throughout the surrounding area. Together, this evidence confirms that the Kingdom of Lydia existed by the early seventh century BC at the latest.
Nonetheless, recent research shows that the origins of the Kingdom of Lydia may extend as far back as the ninth century BC. For instance, recent archaeological findings have revealed the presence of luxury houses and terraced buildings at Sardis dating to around 800 BC.
Even before these recent findings, archaeologists had identified major construction at Sardis dating to the ninth century BC. These reveal clear continuity with later periods, indicating that the Kingdom of Lydia, centered on Sardis, emerged at least as early as the ninth century BC.
Did the Kingdom of Lydia exist in the Bronze Age?
A major question regarding Lydia is whether the kingdom existed in the Bronze Age. Scholars hold varying views on this issue. Some historians argue the Iron Age Kingdom of Lydia was essentially a continuation of the kingdom that existed in the region during the previous era.
The kingdom in question is known as Seha River Land, and it is mentioned in Bronze Age Hittite documents. Based on its immense size, a common conclusion is that Kaymakçı, near Sardis, was its capital.
According to this theory, the kingdom of Seha River Land entered a period of decline in the Bronze Age Collapse. However, rather than disappearing completely, it continued to exist as a distinct political entity. By the ninth century BC, it regained strength and emerged as the Kingdom of Lydia.
This theory argues that the inhabitants of Seha River Land were Lydian speakers. Hence, Seha River Land would, in other words, be a Bronze Age Kingdom of Lydia.
An alternative perspective
However, there are some issues with this theory, the most significant of which is the archaeological evidence. While there is evidence of archaeological continuity between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, there is also evidence of considerable disruption. As historian Christopher Roosevelt explained:
“When Iron Age sites appear in the early first millennium [BC], at any rate, they are associated with different settlement patterns, avoiding earlier mounds and citadels, and different production traditions, especially those associated with new pottery types and clay recipes matching later ‘Lydian’ ceramic traditions, best known from Sardis, and also with different mudbrick manufacture.”
Based on this, some scholars argue that the Lydians arrived in the region during the Iron Age. After having settled there for a century or so, they then began developing a more powerful society. This aligns with the emergence of a powerful Lydian state in the ninth century BC.
A possible Bronze Age Kingdom of Lydia
However, this does not necessarily mean that a Kingdom of Lydia did not exist in the Bronze Age. According to this perspective, the Lydians were immigrants from elsewhere in Anatolia. One popular viewpoint is that they may have originated in northwest Anatolia, possibly even establishing a kingdom there during the Bronze Age.
Scholar Robert Beekes argued that the Bronze Age Kingdom of Lydia can be identified as the Kingdom of Masa, which appears in Bronze Age Hittite records. This theory is based on the idea that “Masa” could have evolved into “Maiones.” The latter term is the ancient Greek ethnonym for the Lydians, attested as early as Homer.
According to Beekes, the Greeks used the suffix “-on-” to denote a people. The Greek “Maionia,” meaning the country of Lydia, was therefore named after its people. This suggests that the original, non-Greek, Bronze Age name for the territory was likely something like “Mai-,” with the latter half open to some debate.
Drawing a parallel with the derivation of “Troia” from the Hittite “Taruisa” (and “Ilios” from “Wilusa”), Beekes argues that the “s” in “Masa” could plausibly have disappeared in the later development of the word. In other words, “Masa” could have evolved into “Maionia” in Greek records.
If this suggestion is correct, then it would mean that the Kingdom of Lydia in the Bronze Age was actually the Kingdom of Masa, located north of Iron Age Lydia. This interpretation aligns well with the idea that the Lydians migrated to Sardis and the surrounding region after the end of the Bronze Age.
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