Expedition to Recover $20B Gold Treasure from San Jose Shipwreck Begins

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San Jose Shipwreck gold treasure
San Jose galleon shipwreck is believed to have been carrying 200 tons of treasure, including gold, silver, and emeralds. Credit: Colombian Presidency

The Colombian government has announced the launch of an underwater recovery expedition to salvage treasures from the San Jose galleon, a historic shipwreck lying off the coast of Cartagena.

Often referred to as the “Holy Grail of shipwrecks,” it is believed to have been carrying 200 tons of treasure, including gold, silver, and emeralds. This initiative, set to begin with the aid of advanced robotic technology, specifically involves deploying an underwater robot to recover its bounty.

San Jose: the Spanish shipwreck that holds $20B gold treasure

The San José, a 62-cannon, three-masted Spanish galleon, met its watery grave on June 8, 1708, during a fierce battle against the British in the War of Spanish Succession. With approximately 600 men aboard, the ship sank near the Colombian port of Cartagena, taking down an estimated 200 tons of gold, silver, and emeralds from the mines of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

The wreck is estimated to be worth billions of dollars based on speculation that it had up to 11 million 4-doubloons (i.e., 11 million 8 escudos gold coins or 11 million coins, each weighing 27 grams of 92% gold, totaling 8.8 million troy ounces AGW, or $11.5 billion) and many silver coins on board at the time of its sinking, similar to its surviving sister ship, San Joaquín.

That would make the multi-deck vessel among the richest sunken ships ever discovered. The silver and gold are from the mines of Potosí, Bolivia. For years, the San José was the subject of lore and speculation until a team of Colombian navy divers, under the auspices of the government, discovered the wreck in 2015, lying at about 3,100 feet deep.

San Jose Shipwreck
Released photos of the 300-year-old San Jose shipwreck, thought to contain billions of dollars in gold coins and other treasure. Credit: Armada de Colombia

The Historical Significance of the San Jose Galleon

The San Jose galleon is not just a shipwreck with treasures; it is a floating testament to the maritime prowess and economic ambitions of the Spanish Empire in the 18th century. Its sinking was a pivotal moment in the War of Spanish Succession, affecting the global balance of power at the time. The ship’s cargo was intended to finance the Spanish crown’s military campaigns in Europe.

Legal and Ethical Considerations of the

The lifting of the San José wreck, which sank more than 300 years ago, comes amid an ongoing dispute over who owns the treasure. The announcement of the recovery operation follows years of legal wrangling and negotiations involving Colombia, Spain, and several private entities, each laying claim to the ship’s riches.

Colombia’s stance has been clear: the San Jose galleon is an integral part of its underwater cultural heritage, protected by UNESCO conventions to which the country is a signatory. The Colombian government asserts that the recovery of the San Jose’s treasures will be carried out with the utmost respect for archaeological and ethical standards, ensuring that the artifacts are preserved for educational and cultural purposes. 

Technological Marvels and Future Prospects

The use of robotic technology is essential in the recovery of the shipwreck. These unmanned vehicles are capable of delicately navigating the challenging depths where the San Jose galleon rests, minimizing the risk of damage to the shipwreck and its surroundings.

The San Jose galleon’s recovery mission is a complex undertaking that involves not only technical and logistical challenges but also questions of cultural heritage, international law, and ethical stewardship. As this piece of submerged history surfaces, the treasures of San Jose will shed more light on the historical narratives of the colonial era and the transatlantic exchanges that shaped the modern world.

Scientists Decode Golden Ratio of Ancient Greek Riace Bronze Statues

Riace bronze Greek statue in Italy
One of the famous ancient Greek Riace Bronzes was found to have had its teeth designed following the mathematical value of the golden ratio. Credit: /Wikimedia Commons/

One famous ancient Greek statue discovered in the Ionian Sea off the coasts of southern Italy in 1972 was studied over the methodology by which it was created, some 2,500 years ago, and its teeth were confirmed to have been designed following the golden ratio of the ancient Greeks that is also used in modern-day dentistry.

Knowing that, at the time of the estimated origin of the so-called Riace Bronzes, the golden proportion principles which would guide classical art and concepts of aesthetic balance of the modern age were known and used, experts from the University of Sapienza in Rome, Italy, started their research in 2022.

The aim of this innovative study was to determine the dentofacial characteristics and the presence of golden ratios in the so-called “young-man” warrior statue, which features a precious and unique detail of its kind: silver foil to represent the upper teeth.

The research concluded that the design of this particular bronze statue indeed stems from the search for beauty as divine proportion, and revealed that even a relatively small detail such as the statue’s face and teeth seems to have been carefully programmed by its masterful ancient Greek sculptor following the mathematical value of 1:1.6181 to achieve the ideal harmonic proportions in human representations.

Although many studies have been conducted on the statues since their discovery, this is the first morphometric study to delve into their facial features.

Archaeological importance of the Riace Bronzes

More than half a century after their discovery in the Ionian Sea near Riace Marina in 1972, the Riace Bronzes continue to fascinate and interest art enthusiasts and archaeology scholars.

The pair of statues was most likely sculpted in Greece between 450-460 BC, and are considered masterpieces of Classical Greek sculpture. The sculptor is not known, even if many are somewhat inclined to attribute the figures to the famous Greek sculptors Phidias or Myron.

They probably were lost at sea between the 1st to 2nd century BC when the ancient Romans looted large quantities of Greek artwork and transported them to present-day Italy.

Made of cast bronze, the favorite metal of Greek artists of classical antiquity, the two statues are among only twelve surviving ancient Greek bronze statues, because bronze was a material always in demand for reuse in later periods.

Ancient Greek golden ratio is the secret to harmonious smile until today

The two nude male figures, slightly larger than life size, represent two warriors. Various theories have been suggested about their identity.

The position of the body and the expression of the first statue’s face seem to convey the moment before a fight, in which the “young man” continues with a threatening attitude toward the second statue and a grin on his face that reveals his silver foil teeth.

Although the teeth are not completely exposed, they are sufficiently visible to evaluate some dimensional characters useful for further analysis, which prompted scientists from the Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences to join forces with the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies in raising a question of scientific, historical, and cultural interest on the original methodological framework by which the Riace bronzes were created, which to date no one had ever considered.

In fact, the same golden aesthetic proportion that was verified to have been applied in the creation of the 2,500 year-old statue’s face and teeth, still plays an important role in modern-day dentistry, as well as in figurative arts, the study observes.

“The factors that most affect smile aesthetics are the relationship of upper incisors in terms of respective length and width and the ratio of visible width of central incisors to lateral incisors and canines,” it describes.

“For a harmonious smile, the teeth must be proportional to each other but they must also be proportional to the face. Both the size and the shape of the teeth affect a good and balanced aesthetic appearance in relation to the face.”

Further studies, possibly carried out with direct measurements on statues or 3D models, could confirm the data and analysis of golden ratios that were reported by the University of Sapienza team of experts.

Former SYRIZA Minister Confirms Candidacy Against Stefanos Kasselakis

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Olga Gerovasili at the podium of the SYRIZA congress in Athens, February 24, 2024.
Olga Gerovasili will run against Stefanos Kasselakis in the upcoming SYRIZA party leadership vote in March. Credit: Twitter / Olga Gerovasili

Deputy Parliament speaker and former SYRIZA Minister Olga Gerovasili has confirmed her candidacy against Stefanos Kasselakis in a new party leadership vote which will take place on March 10—just five months after Kasselakis was elected party chairman.

The politician said she takes on the challenge that was presented to participants by the newly-appointed SYRIZA leader on Friday. She announced her candidacy during her speech at the SYRIZA congress in Athens on Saturday evening, stating that she shares the responsibility to “halt the downhill slide” of SYRIZA.

Her announcement was met with mixed reactions by attendees.

“A few months before the European Parliament elections, our party is sinking into introversion,” Gerovasili said. “We have to give it a way out. We cannot leave things as they are. We all have a responsibility. I bear a share of the responsibility, for the past and for the present.”

“Our opponent is Mitsotakis’ Right [party],” she added. “There are no opponents in here. Our congress is not an arena. No more enemies among us. No more division.”

SYRIZA leader Kasselakis proposes hybrid vote

Kasselakis welcomed Gerovasili’s candidacy and proposed that the party elections take place on March 10th, with an option for digital voting offered to members “in order to achieve the maximum possible participation.”

“I welcome the deputy speaker of the Parliament to the beautiful battle that will help the party love its members in practice,” he stated. “I promise to stay with the party regardless of the result, and work for the party.”

“I promise that if I win, the day after the elections I will invite the vice deputy speaker of the Parliament and her team to work together, so that we can bring about the constitutional changes we need,” Kasselakis added. “In the end the truth will win.”

Earlier on Saturday, some attendees tried to gather signatures to halt the new leadership vote, arguing that it is too early after Kasselakis’ election as party chairman.

The upcoming vote comes after the party’s former chairman Alexis Tsipras, who served as Greek Prime Minister from 2015 to 2019, urged his successor on Thursday to seek a renewed vote of confidence from the party’s membership ahead of its congress, which started that day.

His intervention was triggered by Kasselakis’ request to the party’s Political Secretariat on Wednesday for a three-year blank check which would allow him to retain the party leadership until the next national elections, regardless of the outcome of the European Parliament elections in June.

Eventually, on Thursday evening, Kasselakis challenged those who doubt his leadership to “find him an opponent” to which Gerovasili responded by announcing her candidacy against him.

Cleopatra, The Greek Queen of Ancient Egypt

cleopatra greek queen egypt
Cleopatra, the Greek queen of Ancient Egypt was depicted by Heinrich Faust in 1876. Credit: Public Domain

Cleopatra VII Philopater ruled over Ancient Egypt from 51 to 30 BC and was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. After her death, the Roman Empire took control of the country.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty was formed by Ptolemy I Soter, a Greek general in Alexander the Great’s army, in 305 BC. Although located in Egypt, the dynasty that Ptolemy established remained incredibly Greek.

Cleopatra, a direct descendant of Ptolemy, was the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language, as all those before her spoke only Greek. She was also believed to have spoken Ethiopian, Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, Syriac, Median, Parthian, and Latin.

Despite the fact that she ruled over Egypt, Cleopatra was Greek. The name Cleopatra comes from the Ancient Greek words κλέος (kléos), meaning “glory,” and πατήρ (pater), meaning “father,” which means “glory of her father.”

Renowned for her intellect and wit, Cleopatra was described as incredibly seductive and persuasive, qualities which added to her mystery throughout the centuries.

She has become a popular figure in media, literature, and art, and her enchanting qualities, romantic relationships, and beauty, which is debated, are often the focus of such works.

Most of the information available about Cleopatra’s life comes from Plutarch, who was born sixteen years after the Greek queen died.

Cleopatra’s struggle for power

Busts of Cleopatra
Ancient busts of Cleopatra. Credit: Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities / Facebook

According to surviving ancient sources, Cleopatra’s father was Ptolemy XII while her mother was likely Cleopatra V Tryphaena. When her father passed away, Cleopatra, who was eighteen at the time, was next in line for the throne followed by her brother Ptolemy XIII, who was 10.

The two siblings were to be married and rule together, but Cleopatra soon began to exert more power over her younger brother, which caused tension between the two.

The issue of two heirs proved bloody for the dynasty. Soon after she took the throne, Cleopatra’s advisers betrayed her, and she was forced to flee Egypt.

While in exile in Syria, Cleopatra amassed an army and set out to the outer reaches of Egypt to face her brother’s troops in a civil war.

As the war raged on, Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra’s brother, sanctioned the murder of the Roman general Pompey, who was Julius Caesar’s rival.

When Caesar was welcomed into Alexandra, the center of Ptolemaic Egypt, Cleopatra saw an opportunity to regain power. According to ancient sources, the queen snuck into the palace to meet Caesar and try to form an alliance with the Roman leader.

The pair had the same adversary—Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra’s brother. Caesar was in Egypt trying to receive the money that was owed to him after Cleopatra’s father died, and Ptolemy XIII was ready to fight a battle over paying the debt.

A war broke out between the outnumbered Roman forces and the Egyptian king, and the battle seemed all but decided until Roman reinforcements arrived. Upon the Roman army’s entry into Egypt, Ptolemy XIII’s forces crumbled, and he was forced to flee Alexandria. According to ancient sources, he later drowned in the Nile.

Caesar entered Alexandria as a conquering ruler and placed Cleopatra, along with her other younger brother Ptolemy XIV, on the throne.

Caesar remained in Alexandria for a time after returning the throne to Cleopatra, and it is heavily implied that he fathered the Greek queen’s son, Caesarion, or “Little Caesar,” before returning to Rome.

In 46 to 45 BC, Cleopatra and her son visited Caesar in Rome, and stayed in his villa. The Greek queen of Egypt stayed in Rome until Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, after which she returned to Egypt.

Shortly after her return to Egypt, her brother and co-ruler Ptolemy XIV was killed, likely on Cleopatra’s own orders. After her brother’s death, Cleopatra’s three-year-old son, Caesarion became the new co-ruler.

This setup was ideal for Cleopatra, as it provided her with a co-regent who was unwilling and incapable of betraying her, basically allowing her to rule on her own.

Throughout her reign, the Greek queen of Egypt also linked herself to various deities, such as Isis, which further cemented her role as ruler of the land.

Additionally, turmoil erupted in Rome in the wake of Caesar’s assassination, as his former allies, Mark Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus, fought for control against his assassins, Cassius and Brutus.

Both sides of the conflict sought out support from Cleopatra, and perhaps unsurprisingly, she offered Roman reinforcements that had been stationed in Egypt to support Caesar’s allies.

This aid likely contributed to the victory of Caesar’s allies, and after their win, Mark Antony and Octavian ruled over Rome.

Caesarion, Pharaoh, son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar
Pharaoh Caesarion, son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. Credit: flickr / Carole Raddato cc by sa 2.0

Mark Antony and the Greek queen of Egypt

Mark Antony then invited the Greek queen to Tarsus, located in modern-day Turkey, to meet her in person. According to ancient sources, Cleopatra came dressed in the robes of the goddess Isis and dazzled the Roman leader.

Antony, taken by the queen of Egypt, pledged that he would support her rule in the country. When Cleopatra returned to Egypt, Mark Antony decided to leave his family, including his wife and children, to spend time in Alexandria.

While there, he carried on partying with Cleopatra. The pair even formed a drinking club called “The Inimitable Livers,” ostensibly as a group to honor the god Dionysus but likely to drink and revel.

Cleopatra gave birth to twins, Alexander Helios, which means sun, and Cleopatra Selene, which means moon, shortly after Antony returned to Rome in 40 BC.

As Cleopatra maintained power over Egypt, the country became one of the wealthiest and most influential in the Mediterranean. Antony even traveled to Egypt and sought financial support from Cleopatra for a military mission that his country could not afford.

Upon Cleopatra offering him the funds, Antony returned a number of countries that were once part of the Egyptian Empire, including Cyprus, Crete, Libya, and much of the Levant.

While Antony was staying in Egypt, Cleopatra gave birth to her son, Ptolemy Philadelphos, in 36 BC. Antony then refused to return to his wife in Rome and decided to stay in Egypt, where he declared that Cleopatra’s son, Caesarion, was Caesar’s true heir and even offered money and land to the three children he fathered with the queen.

Octavian, Antony’s co-ruler in Rome, had already been searching for a way to undermine his partner so that he himself could conquer the Roman world.

After learning of Antony’s antics in Egypt, Octavian decided to convince the Roman Senate to declare war on Egypt and Cleopatra, knowing that Antony would take her side, by saying that Antony was looking to establish a new Roman capital in the country.

This lead to the famous Battle of Actium, during which Octavian crushed Antony and Cleopatra’s forces. The couple were separated as they both fled to Alexandria. On the journey back to the Egyptian capital, Antony heard a rumor that his beloved had killed herself, so he fell on his own sword, only to die after learning that the rumor was not true.

Upon arriving in Alexandria, Cleopatra buried Antony and retreated to her chamber, where she took her own life. Plutarch states that she died at 39 after being bitten by an asp, a poisonous snake, which was a symbol of divine royalty. Other sources claim that she poisoned herself.

The death of both of his rivals allowed Octavian to take sole control of both Rome and Egypt, and with this consolidation of power, Octavian, renamed Augustus, became the first Roman Emperor.

Cleopatra’s legacy as an exotic, seductive, and powerful ruler of Egypt has persisted throughout the centuries. While she is now popularly known for her love affairs, suicide, and beauty, Plutarch actually stresses that she was not very attractive physically, but that her charm and intelligence was irresistible.

The Greek queen of Ancient Egypt has become a popular symbol of powerful, seductive women, with countless films, paintings, and stories written in her honor.

Why Was the Ancient Greek City of Hadrianopolis Suddenly Abandoned?

hadrianopolis ancient greek city abandoned
Hadrianopolis, an ancient Greek city in Asia Minor, was mysteriously abandoned. Credit: Carole Raddato/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 2.0

Archaeologists believe they will soon solve the mystery regarding the ancient Greek city of Hadrianopolis, located in the Eskipazar district of the Black Sea province of Karabuk, Turkey, which was mysteriously abandoned.

Ibrahim Sahin, the culture and tourism director of Karabuk, and Ersin Celikbas, an archaeology professor at Karabuk University, have been in charge of investigating the site.

According to the researchers, Hadrianopolis was suddenly abandoned completely at some point in the seventh century AD.

“[…]excavations revealed that there was a sudden evacuation in the ancient city. We are trying to find out the reason—whether an earthquake happened, an invasion occurred or a big fire broke out. But we can certainly say that life here ended in the 7th century. There was not even a single person left in the ancient city,” Celikbas said to Hurriyet Daily News last year.

The archeologist recounted that their excavations have unearthed a church, one of the oldest in Anatolia, with mosaics dating back to the fifth century AD.

Important mosaics found at abandoned ancient Greek city Hadrianopolis

“We found very important figures on the mosaics. We found a panel with one bull figure, one lion figure and two peacocks. When we look at similar examples of these figures in Anatolia, the most complete example is the mosaic that we found in Hadrianopolis this year. We think that the church was dedicated to Roman emperors,” Celikbas explained.

“It is a very important ancient city and a ‘mosaic haven,’ because Hadrianopolis is known mostly for its mosaics. We can say that it is the most important city in the western Black Sea region. It was the center of eparchy in the ancient ages,” he related.

Hadrianopolis ancient greek city abandoned
The ancient theater at the city of Hadrianopolis. Credit: Carole Raddato/Wikimedia Commons/ CC BY-SA 2.0

“Notable religious functionaries lived here. This year’s works unearthed many small findings from the 6th century. We are about to get more important results in our works. We are about to solve the mystery of the ancient city,” Celikbas declared.

Hadrianopolis was inhabited in the late Hellenistic, Roman, and early Byzantine periods. Surface surveys have uncovered a total of 14 public buildings and other structures in the city.

Two baths, two churches, a defense structure, rock tombs, a theater, an arched and domed structure, a monumental cultic niche, walls, a villa, other monumental buildings, and several religious buildings were found at the ancient site.

There is an almost innumerable number of ancient Greek and Byzantine archaeological and historical sites in Turkey, many of which attract hundreds of thousands, even millions, of visitors every year.

Many of them are landmarks not to be missed by travelers to Turkey, and they should especially not be missed by Greek travelers since they are incontrovertible evidence of their people’s long, rich history and contributions to Western civilization.

Celebrate Spring With Ancient Greek Tradition of Martis Bracelets

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Spring Martis greek bracelet
Greeks celebrate spring with traditional Martis bracelets. Credit: Greek Reporter

Spring is (almost) in the air in Greece, and Greeks will soon begin preparations to welcome the new season by celebrating an ancient annual custom. The Greek tradition of “Martis” entails that everyone, regardless of age, adorns themselves with red and white bracelets made from thread from March 1st until the last day of the month on March 31st.

The ancient tradition of Martis, from which the month of March derives its name, dates back to the cults of Demeter and Persephone, which began thousands of years ago in ancient Greece. Eleusis was the ancient city where the ancients performed secret rites for the cult.

Martis, March
Credit: Greek Reporter

As a form of initiation into the cult, which was one of the Eleusinian Mysteries, the faithful wore a bracelet called a “kroki” around both their right hand and left ankle. Amazingly, the ancient tradition still lives on today in modern Greece. However, there are certain rules that one must abide by when creating and wearing the symbolic bracelet which celebrates the arrival of Spring.

Most importantly, the bracelet must be woven on the last day of February and it must be made of white and red thread. The white thread of the bracelet symbolizes purity while the red represents life and passion.

Greek tradition says to tie a Martis bracelet to a flowering tree

In ancient times, people believed that the bracelet helped protect the person who was wearing it from diseases, as well as the strong rays of the spring sun during the month of March.

Part of the ancient Greek tradition calls for the person wearing their red and white “Martis” bracelet to take it off and tie it to the first flowering tree they see in March in order to yield a healthy harvest and to keep the tree healthy.

Martis, Martch, BraceletAnother lovely tradition which Greeks practice with Martis bracelets occurs when the first swallow of the spring is sighted. The first person who sees a swallow upon the bird’s return from its winter migration, ties their bracelet around the nearest rose bush to encourage the bird to build its nest there.

traditionIf you are interested in wearing a Greek Martis bracelet to welcome the spring (and who wouldn’t be), the Greek-themed stores Etsy, and EFI Store offer a wide selection of the bracelets at affordable prices.

Take some time this spring and peruse the authentic, hand-crafted Greek bracelets there, as well as an array of other authentic Greek products which can be shipped worldwide.

tradition
Credit: Greek Reporter

Mathematics in Ancient Greece and Its Influence on Modern Science

Digital art of a classical Greek temple interior with statues and mathematical symbols.
The Elegance of Greek Mathematics. AI Depiction. Credit: DALLE for the Greek Reporter

Advances in mathematics that can be attributed to ancient Greeks are many and have profoundly shaped the scientific world as we know it today.

Let’s take a look at ancient Greece, a place where the idea of zero was yet to be discovered, and the Earth’s circumference remained a mystery.

In the cradle of Western civilization, a band of intellectual pioneers and great thinkers started to sketch the outlines of what we now recognize as modern mathematics. They did more than that, however. These ancient Greeks influenced science and engineering in a unique and fundamental way. Their journey wasn’t merely about pushing human knowledge further ahead. It was about redrawing the entire map of the human understanding of our world through mathematics.

Evolution from practical mathematics to abstract thinking

Long before the Greeks, civilizations like the Egyptians and Babylonians were using math for building, farming, stargazing, and in general in their everyday lives. What they lacked, however, was the Greek flair for abstraction and logical reasoning.

This is when the journey of the Greeks into the world of mathematics began. Starting around the 6th century BCE, Greek thinkers began treating math as a playground for the mind. For them, it was not just a toolbox to keep their hands busy when they had nothing better to do. This fundamental shift from the empirical aspect to the theoretical one laid the foundations for everything that followed in the mathematical world. It defines our understanding of mathematics to this day.

Key Figures in Greek Mathematics

The history of Greek influence in mathematics is full of famous personalities and lesser-known ones, each contributing their unique brilliance to the mix of what we now call “Greek mathematics.”

Thales of Miletus, the pioneer

Engraving of Thales of Miletus
Thales of Miletus, pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and mathematician. Credit: Wilhelm Meyer, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Imagine Thales as the original innovator of Greek mathematics. He was not just a figure of historical importance but also a visionary who saw the world through geometric lenses.

His ability to use geometry to solve practical problems was legendary—whether it was measuring the pyramids of Egypt or estimating the distance of ships at sea. However, Thales’ contributions went beyond these. He is credited with predicting solar eclipses and laying down the basic principles of geometry, effectively initiating a real mathematical revolution in Greece. Additionally, his work on deductive reasoning laid a foundational stone for the scientific method, marking him as a thinker far ahead of his time.

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, Thales has been credited with the discovery of five geometric theorems. The first was that a circle is bisected by its diameter. The second, that angles in a triangle opposite two sides of equal length are equal. The third was that opposite angles formed by intersecting straight lines are equal while the fourth posited that the angle inscribed inside a semicircle is a right angle. Finally, he also concluded that a triangle is determined if its base and the two angles at the base are given.

Pythagoras, the number mystic

Engraving of Pythagoras
Pythagoras, the ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician, illustrated in traditional attire with a book in hand. Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Unlike what many of us might think, Pythagoras wasn’t just obsessed with triangles. He was a person with fundamental mathematical understanding who went deep into the core of numbers. His work was pioneering and helped the field of number theory advance tremendously. His belief in numbers as fundamental elements of the universe led him to come up with the famous Pythagorean theorem. According to his theorem, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides.

However, his influence in mathematics was much wider than a single theorem, touching on concepts of harmony and the cosmos.

The teachings of this man from the Greek island of Samos on the relationship between numbers and musical notes laid the groundwork for mathematical harmony, too. This mixed the fields of music, mathematics, and astronomy into a unified theory. His school not only dealt with mathematical problems but also explored fields like philosophy, setting the stage for a more holistic and integrated approach to knowledge.

Euclid, the architect of geometry

Dark-toned painting of Euclid holding open pages of a book with geometric diagrams.
Euclid presenting his geometric findings, as depicted in a Classical painting. Credit: Jusepe de Ribera, J. Paul Getty Museum, Wikimedia Commons Public Domain

Euclid is known as the “Father of Geometry.” His magnum opus, Elements, is a timeless masterpiece that systematized the chaotic world of geometric knowledge. His work placed everything into an organized, logical framework.

Nonetheless, Euclid didn’t just study geometry. He also refined it, introducing axiomatic proofs and a systematic approach. This tactic later became the gold standard for mathematical exposition. His groundbreaking work established the idea that mathematical truths should be derived from a small set of axioms. It was a concept that has come to underpin the development of mathematics ever since.

The influence of Euclid extends beyond mathematics, of course. His work reached the fields of philosophy, logic, and even physical sciences, and his Elements is one of the most influential pieces in the history of human thought.

Archimedes, the genius of Syracuse

Painting of Archimedes deep in thought, examining a globe, with mathematical papers on a table.
Archimedes, engrossed in thought amidst his mathematical inquiries. By Domenico Fetti. Credit: Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Archimedes is often hailed as the greatest mathematician of antiquity. He was a true polymath who went beyond the boundaries of mathematics, physics, and engineering.

His vital contributions to the way we understand pi, as well as his methods for calculating areas and volumes were truly revolutionary. Archimedes’ work on topics like levers, buoyancy (think of the famous “Eureka” moment), and his war machines showed an unparalleled ability to apply mathematical principles to practical problems of everyday life.

Additionally, among other things, his invention of the Archimedes screw, a device for literally raising water, is also proof of his genius in engineering. The methodology that Archimedes used, which included the method of exhaustion, laid foundational mathematical methodologies for future generations of scientists and mathematicians across the world.

As we can see, these great figures of ancient Greek mathematics did more than merely solve equations and think about geometric shapes. They did the all-important work that would define scientific thought for centuries to come.

Breakthrough discoveries in Greek mathematics

As one can undoubtedly see, Greek mathematics is a true treasure of discoveries and innovative insights. The Pythagorean Theorem, for example, is a timeless gem that billions of students study around the world. Its simple and yet fundamental idea revealed the deep geometric insights of these ancient thinkers, including those of Pythagoras.

Additionally, in number theory, the Greeks explored topics such as the prime and perfect numbers, using their unique method of exhaustion. This helped future generations develop calculus, which is the mathematical study of continuous change.

These weren’t merely abstract ideas but steps towards a better understanding of the world using mathematics.

Greek inventions: bridging math and technology

Based on this mathematical knowledge, the Greeks also managed to become master inventors. They created devices such as the gnomon and the astrolabe, which helped sailors navigate the stars and stormy seas. The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient analogue computer, is also perhaps the most stunning example of their ingenuity. This tiny machine that was discovered more than a century ago purely unintentionally, predicted astronomical positions with astonishing accuracy that still amazes scientists and experts around the globe.

Fast forward to today, and the Greek mathematical spirit is clearly still alive and kicking. The dedication of the numerous Greek thinkers of the past to proof and structure their theories logically laid the foundations for modern mathematical thought.

It was during the Renaissance that the rediscovery of Greek texts helped fuel the scientific revolution of the modern world, influencing giants like Copernicus and Newton.

The everlasting influence of Greek mathematics

The world of Greek mathematics reminds us of the timeless legacy of these individuals for human knowledge. The ancient Greeks challenged their status quo and strived to see beyond that which could immediately be seen.

They liked to question and explore. This helped them advance our common understanding of the world. Their legacy continues to inspire, reminding us of the enduring strength of human curiosity.

Investments in Greece Discussed During Prime Minister’s Visit to Qatar

Greek Prime Minister Mitsotakis met the Emir of Qatar in Doha.
The Prime Minister of Greece, Kyriakos Mitsotakis, met with the Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad al Thani, in Doha. Credit: Prime-Minister’s Office

On Saturday, Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis met with the Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad al Thani during a working visit to Doha.

The meeting was followed by expanded talks between the delegations of the two countries.

The Greek Premier arrived at Hamad International Airport in Doha on Friday in a stopover while returning from his official visit to India.

This is Mitsotakis’ second visit to Doha since taking over as Prime Minister. Energy issues had dominated his first official visit to Qatar in 2022.

Investment opportunities, Middle East discussed during visit

Mitsotakis and the accompanying delegation were welcomed upon arrival by the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Sultan bin Saad Al Muraikhi, the Ambassador of Qatar to the Hellenic Republic Ali bin Khalfan Al Mansouri, and the Ambassador of the Hellenic Republic to Qatar Ioannis Ioannidis.

According to the Greek Prime Minister’s Office, the two leaders reaffirmed their mutual will to strengthen bilateral cooperation in the fields of economy, tourism, and culture.

Mitsotakis spoke about the positive prospects of the Greek economy after the recovery of the investment level and emphasized that Greece presents great investment opportunities, especially in energy, tourism, and the agri-food sector. It was agreed that there would soon be a business mission to Athens to explore cooperation possibilities.

The Prime Minister extended an invitation to the Emir of Qatar to visit Athens, which Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani accepted.

The situation in Gaza and the latest developments in the Middle East were also discussed. Mitsotakis pointed out the important mediating role played by Qatar for the release of hostages and peace in the region, while the Emir of Qatar expressed his appreciation for Greece’s initiatives and role in the region.

Qatar looking to strengthen and expand cooperation with Greece

Speaking to AMNA ahead of the meeting of the Greek and Qatari leaders, Ambassador of Qatar to the Hellenic Republic Ali bin Khalfan Al Mansouri said that the two countries present steady economic growth. They also agreed there is a mutual desire and wide-ranging potential for developing partnerships, especially in the sectors of energy, investments, trade, transport, culture, education, tourism, and sports.

“[The visit] is very important as it confirms the will of the two countries to strengthen their bilateral relations and their desire to extend and deepen their cooperation into sectors and horizons, with the aim of promoting the interests of the two friendly nations and enhancing regional and international peace and security,” the ambassador said.

Pythian Games: The Art Olympics of Ancient Greece

AI depiction. Ancient Greek vase depicting athletes participating in the Pythian Games, the art Olympics
Athletes at the Pythian Games, ancient Greece’s art Olympics, on a vase. AI depiction. Credit: Midjourney for the Greek Reporter

Nearly everyone around the world knows the Olympic Games that began in ancient Greece, but who really knows what the Pythian Games are?

In the heart of ancient Greece, in Delphi, these games honored Apollo’s mythical victory over the serpent Python. This unique event that was crucial for all the ancient Greek city-states mixed athletic competition with major cultural festivities.

Unlike their Olympic counterpart, the Pythian Games uniquely and beautifully blended music, poetry, and drama on top of their athletic events. This set a precedent for a holistic celebration of human capabilities in contrast with the purely physical nature of the Olympic games.

Today, as we seek to bridge past and present, the decision of a few daring and inspired individuals to revive these ancient Greek Games brings new light to the ancient events. It is yet again evidence of the enduring prestige of ancient Greek events and their globally accepted humanistic ideals through art and sport.

Temple of Apollo in Delphi, Greece, home of the oracle
Delphi, Temple of Apollo. Credit: Berthold Werner / Wikimedia Commons cc by 3.0

The mythological roots and evolution of the Pythian Games

The origins of the Pythian Games can be traced back to the 8th century BCE. These Games were rooted in an important mythological battle. There, Apollo, the god of music, poetry, and light, defeated the serpent Python. His victory established his sanctuary at Delphi, making this place at the heart of central Greece particularly important.

Apart from its mythological aspect, though, this fight also symbolized the triumph of civilization over chaos. This has been a theme deeply connected with the Pythian Games themselves. Initially, the Pythian Games were exclusively religious ceremonies. However, they soon evolved to become one of the four major Panhellenic Games, a cornerstone of the identity of the ancient Greek culture.

These games, like the Olympic Games, were held every four years. They were second in prestige only to the Olympics, drawing participants and spectators from across the entire Greek world. Athletes competed in various events, including foot races, wrestling, boxing, and chariot racing. On the other hand, artists and musicians also had a predominant role in the Pythian Games.

They participated in various song, poetry, and later, drama contests, enriching the cultural nature of the Games. As a result, the Pythian Games were not simply a copycat of the Olympics, during which athletes competed in different sports. They were truly artistic events that united the often-fractious Greek city-states, fostering a sense of shared “Greekness” to them all.

As it is understood, the Pythian Games held significant religious importance, too. The contests took place alongside sacrifices and offerings to Apollo. This practice reinforced the link between athletic power, artistic talent, and divine intervention. The unique blend of spirituality, art, and athletic competition exemplified the holistic worldview of the ancient Greeks. For them, body, mind, and soul always needed to be harmoniously integrated for a healthy and normal life.

Pythian Games Delphi ancient Greece
The stadium at Delphi which was the site of the Pythian Games in antiquity. Credit: wikimedia commons / Zde CC BY SA 4.0

Unique aspects of the Pythian Games competitions

At the heart of the Pythian Games were their diverse competitions, which set them apart from other ancient Greek festivals. The participating athletes showcased their physical strength as well as their agility in events such as races, wrestling, boxing, and the awe-inspiring chariot race. This was indeed a favorite among spectators, as it produced a thrilling spectacle of speed and danger. Of course, it was the inclusion of musical, artistic, and literary contests that made the Pythian Games different. Reflecting Apollo’s domains of music and poetry, it couldn’t have been otherwise.

The participating competitors engaged in musical performances, playing the lyre and singing. They also had to recite poetry and present interesting and captivating dramas.

Obviously, it would be wrong to think that these cultural events were less important compared to the sports competitions. It is safe to say that among the spectators they were at least as prestigious as the athletic ones. This is why they kept attracting poets, musicians, and scholars from all over Greece to display their talents and compete for the so important victory.

Cultural and social impact of the Pythian Games in ancient Greece

The Pythian Games had a profound impact on ancient Greek society. Beyond their role in celebrating athletic and artistic excellence, the Games were critical in bringing together the scattered Greek city-states. This provided a rare opportunity for them for peaceful co-existence and mutual respect among rivals. The festival also facilitated the exchange of ideas, contributing to the spread of Greek culture and Greek language throughout the Mediterranean.

Moreover, along with the Olympic Games, the Pythian Games highlighted the importance of the concept of ekecheiria, or sacred truce. During this sacred time, hostilities were suspended, and safe passage was granted to participants traveling to Delphi. The practice not only ensured the Games could be held in a peaceful manner but also symbolized the potential for unity and harmony within the fragmented Greek world. These were ideals that resonated deeply with the everyday Greeks, who were used to constantly fight each other.

The modern revival of the Pythian Games and their legacy

In recent years, there has been a very strong effort to revive the Pythian Games. This was a result of a growing interest in reconnecting our world with ancient traditions. Surprisingly enough, during the 1912 Olympic Games in Stockholm, Sweden, cultural competitions were included in the schedule of events. There, numerous artists participated in and won medals in music, literature, painting, and architecture competitions.

However, this didn’t last long and the art competitions were eventually dropped by the International Olympic Committee in 1954.

Lately, India has been playing a critical role in the revival of the Pythian Games. Thus, the Modern Pythian Games have been taking place on a regional level, including competitions on performance arts, music, literature, architecture, and much more.

The Origin of the Etruscans: What Archaeological Evidence and Genetics Show

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etruscans
A detail from the sarcophagus known as “The sarcophagus of the Spouses,” one of the masterpieces of Etruscan art, now in the Louvre Museum. Credit: wikimedia commons / Ecelan CC BY-SA 2.5

The Etruscans were a relatively enigmatic people who lived in ancient Italy. They dominated the central region of Italy from about 700 BCE until the rise of Rome and the southern Greek city-states. Due to the difficulties in translating their inscriptions, there is considerable debate about their origin. What does the evidence really show about the origin of the Etruscans?

Ancient claims about the origin of the Etruscans

The ancient historian Herodotus was the first person to write about the origin of the Etruscans as far as surviving records are concerned. According to him, they originated from western Anatolia. In the era of the Trojan War, their original territory suffered a terrible famine.

As a result, half of the nation migrated to Italy to find a new home. They settled in Central Italy, forming Etruria. The vast majority of ancient historians accepted this basic origin for the Etruscans. However, there were some exceptions. One notable example is Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

Famously, this historian of the first century BCE argued against the Anatolian origin of the Etruscans. Instead, he argued that they were the native inhabitants of Italy.

Some modern sources also claim that certain other first-century BCE records attribute the origin of the Etruscans to the area north of Italy. However, this is untrue. Livy is the source for this idea. Yet, what he actually says is that the Etruscans migrated to that northern region after they had first settled in Central Italy. Therefore, there were only two opposing theories concerning the Etruscans’ origins in antiquity rather than three.

Archaeological evidence

One of the main reasons why Dionysius of Halicarnassus denied that the Etruscans had come from Anatolia is because he could not perceive any strong similarities between them and the nations that lived in Anatolia in his own time. Fortunately, historians today have the benefit of modern archaeology. This allows us to come to far more reliable conclusions.

As it happens, archaeology has revealed that the Etruscans entered a phase called the Orientalizing period around 700 BCE. At this time, we see a sudden influx of Anatolian elements arriving in Etruria. Archaeologist Jodi Magness explained it as such:

“Near Eastern influence is evident on almost all aspects of Etruscan life, including art, clothing, chariots, military equipment and warfare, hairstyles, dining habits, religion or cult, and technology.”

In view of the legend of the Etruscans having their origin in Anatolia, this is significant. It is true that the Greeks also went through their own Orientalizing period. However, it mostly took the form of gradually adopting some Near Eastern art styles. This is easily explained through trade.

In contrast, the Orientalizing period among the Etruscans affected almost every aspect of their society, and it was far more sudden in its conception. Attempting to explain this through trade is hardly convincing since the Greeks were geographically closer to Anatolia and had been trading with that region for longer.

Evidence from monumental tombs

Etruscan monumental tombs in Caere, Italy.
Etruscan monumental tombs in Caere, Italy. Credit: Wikimedia Commons, CC-BY-SA 3.0

How can we be sure whether or not the “Oriental inundation” among the Etruscans was really the result of a migration? In the absence of contemporary written sources, this is difficult to answer. However, one of the most secure methods of archaeologically establishing an actual migration is to look at burial customs.

Around 700 BCE, there was a general social upheaval in Etruria. This is when the first true Etruscan cities appeared. The same can be said regarding Etruscan sculpture. The Etruscans also adopted the Greek alphabet at this time. All of these show that some significant changes occurred around the year 700 BCE in Etruria.

However, for our purposes, the most interesting change was the sudden adoption of monumental tombs. These Etruscan tombs were evidently the resting places of the elite class. Fascinatingly, archaeologists have noted that these monumental tombs display some striking similarities to contemporary Phrygian and Lydian tombs.

For example, Etruscan tombs of this early period included benches, parapets, and headrests just like those found in Anatolia. Furthermore, they also contained a stone basement with decorations of circular rings similar to Lydian tombs. The Etruscans also had funerary statues which match those of ancient Anatolia.

The origin of the Etruscans according to genetics

From this evidence, it seems very likely that the elite class of Etruria from around 700 BCE onwards really did come from Anatolia. Logically, this is the origin of the legend recorded by Herodotus regarding the origin of the Etruscans.

However, what about common people? To what degree did the Etruscans as a whole come from Anatolia? Was it just the elite class, in the same vein as when the Normans invaded Britain, or was it a large migration in which a considerable portion of the Etruscan population came from Anatolia?

Genetic studies can help us answer that question. A landmark study of ancient DNA in 2021 revealed that a considerable portion of Etruscan DNA in the dataset could be attributed to Iron Age Southern European populations, such as those of Greece and Croatia in particular.

This genetic connection to the Balkans provides notable support to Herodotus’ report about the origin of the Etruscans. We have seen that archaeological evidence indicates this migration really occurred around 700 BCE rather than in the Bronze Age. As it happens, by that time, a number of Iron Age Southern European nations had already migrated to western Anatolia.

In particular, the Phrygians came from the Balkans. The Greeks, too, had extensively settled in western Anatolia by 700 BCE. Therefore, a migration from western Anatolia to Italy in 700 BCE would plausibly have included large numbers of Phrygians and Greeks. This theorized origin of the Etruscans is consistent with both genetic and archaeological evidence.