On This Day in 1930, Constantinople Was Renamed Istanbul, Both Greek Words

Constantinople or Istanbul
Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (or Istanbul). Credit: Greek Reporter

Built as Byzantium around 657 BC and then renamed Constantinople in the 4th century CE after Constantine the Great made the city his capital, the city of Istanbul officially received its present name on this day in 1930.

Surprisingly, the capital of the Byzantine Empire was not renamed after the Ottomans captured it in 1453. Variations of “Constantinople” continued to be used by the Turkish-speaking conquerors long after they took control of the city.

“It’s a fact that the Ottomans called Istanbul ‘Kostantiniyye,’ among other names, in thousands of their official documents,” said Christoph Herzog, chair of Turkish studies at the University of Bamberg in Germany speaking to Live Science.

Istanbul and Constantinople are both Greek words

People elsewhere in the empire began to use the word “Istanpolin,” which means “to the city” in Turkish (adapted from the Greek phrase “to The City” or “eis tan polin”) to colloquially describe the new seat of Ottoman imperial power. Progressively, Istanpolin became used more, but the official name remained Constantinople.

Throughout the many centuries of its existence, Greeks had referred to Constantinople as simply “Polis” (City). When one was going to the Polis, they would say “Is tin Poli”—a phrase which morphed into the modern term Istanbul.

Following its defeat in World War I, the sultanate of the Ottoman Empire was abolished in 1922, and the Republic of Turkey was born in 1923. Shortly thereafter, in 1930, the Turkish postal service decided some clarification was in order, and it opted to make Istanbul the city’s official name.

Other institutions soon followed suit. That same year, the U.S. State Department and other governments around the world began using Istanbul in their official communications.

Turkish anger at use of Constantinople instead of Istanbul

In 2019, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan declared that still “there are people who want to see Istanbul as Constantinople…this is Istanbul, also known as Islam-bul, this is not Constantinople!”

Turkish footballer Kenan Özer had caused a widespread outcry in Turkey earlier after calling Istanbul Constantinople.

Özer, according to Turkey’s Hurriyet daily, wrote on his personal Instagram account that “The conquest of Constantinople has been completed. Thank God,” referring to a football match in the city.

After receiving hundreds of negative comments from Turkish users of the social media platform, Özer turned his account private, hiding the posting.

For Greeks, Istanbul will always be Constantinople

Greeks never called Constantinople “Istanbul.” This is partly due to the horror they felt knowing that when Constantinople fell to the Ottomans on May 29, 1453, it meant the end of Byzantium, and subsequently, Hellenism in the East. The fall of Constantinople marked the beginning of nearly 400 years of Ottoman occupation.

It is also partly because Greeks naturally feel nostalgic for the splendor that was the Byzantine Empire, which also helped further the spread of Orthodoxy all the way through Russia and today’s Balkan lands.

Another big part of the Greeks’ refusal to accept the name “Istanbul” for their beloved Polis is that since the 1920s, the contemporary Turkish state has been hostile to Hellenism and Greece itself on numerous occasions.

Greeks can never forget the destruction of Smyrna in 1922, the burning of Constantinople’s Greek neighborhoods, the further persecution of Greeks in 1955, or the Turkish invasion and occupation of the northern part of Cyprus in 1974.

Related: Istanbul vs. Constantinople: Why Both Words are Greek

The Female Gladiators of Ancient Rome

Marble relief with female gladiators
Marble relief of paired fighters, Amazonia and Achillea, found at Halicarnassus. Their names, written in ancient Greek, identify them as females.1st-2nd century CE. Credit: Carole Raddato / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 2.0

In Ancient Rome, female fighters were known as “Gladiatrix” and were basically the equivalent of Roman male gladiators. However, instead of fighting other men, they fought other Gladiatrix or even wild animals. These battles took place during special events in arenas and festivals.

It’s important to note that there are no Latin words from the Roman period that specifically referred to the Gladiatrix. The term “Gladiatrix” is more of a recent term used to describe these female fighters. There is limited historical evidence and documented accounts of their existence, according to Heritage Daily.

To the ancient Romans, seeing women gladiators in combat was quite an unusual and novel thing, and they didn’t always view it positively. Oftentimes, they would match a Gladiatrix against opponents of similar skill and strength, creating exciting but sometimes controversial battles in arenas.

Women gladiators in ancient Rome got trained the same way as men

Decimus Junius Juvenalis, an ancient Roman poet, noted that women gladiators trained for combat using the same methods and weapons as men. However, it is essential to also note that there are no records of a ludus, or gladiator school, dedicated to training females in this way.

Juvenalis explained that women from all social classes, whether they were high-class (feminae) or common women (mulieres), engaged in gladiatorial training. However, it’s doubtful that upper-class females would actually step into the arena to fight, mainly because of the social stigma associated with it.

In Roman society, the activities of common women (mulieres) didn’t often draw much attention or concern from the public. Thus, if a common woman chose to appear on stage as a performer (ludi) or participate in the arena, it was, according to Heritage Daily, unlikely to result in significant social criticism or bring shame to her family.

Evidence of arena combats in 2nd century AD

We can find evidence in support of the existence of arena combats by female gladiators of ancient Rome in an inscription at Ostia Antica, which documents the arena games that took place in the 2nd century AD.

The inscription mentions a local magistrate’s involvement in providing “women for the sword,” specifically categorizing them as mulieres rather than feminae, wrote Heritage Daily.

Furthermore, written sources, such as a contemporary account by the historian and chronicler Cassius Dio (AD 155-235), describe a festival held in honor of the Roman Emperor Nero’s Mother.

During this festival, women took part in various activities, including horseback riding, hunting wild animals, and even engaging in gladiatorial combat. Some women participated willingly, while others may have been forced to do so against their own will, according to Cassius Dio.

Archaeologists discovered a lamp with an image of a fallen gladiator as well as other lamps depicting gods related to gladiatorial games. Alongside these discoveries, they also uncovered pinecones, which were typically burned at the arena for purification purposes, reported Heritage Daily.

This finding has led to the suggestion that the deceased individual may have been a Gladiatrix, and in the UK media, she’s been referred to as the “Gladiator Girl.”

Greece Plans Major Overhaul of Air Force and Sale of Older Jets

Greece Air Force
Hellenic Air Force Mirage 2000 taking off. Public Domain

Greece has announced a major overhaul of the Hellenic Air Force (HAF) which essentially involves the decommissioning and sale of F-16 and Mirage 2000 fighter jets.

Greek Defense Minister Nikos Dendias highlighted the need for the Air Force to be streamlined, pointing out that the variety of aircraft types in the current fleet was a burden. The fundamental driver behind the decision to downsize the fighter jet fleet was the exorbitant expense of maintenance.

“We need to make some very radical changes in the weapons systems [operated by the HAF], … everything needs to change,” Dendias said in an interview with Antenna TV recently.

“We have a cartload of different types of aircraft. We have F-4s, Mirage 2000-5s, Block 30 F-16s, Block 50 F-16s, Block 52 F-16s, Viper F-16s and Rafales. We cannot carry on this way,” he said.

Greece’s Air Force streamlined

“The F-4s need to be retired and, if possible, sold. The Mirage 2000-5 is an exceptionally capable plane and can be sold. The Block 30 F-16s need to be sold. And I think we will be able to sell the [Mirage 2000-5 and Block 30 F-16s],” he added, pointing to the enormous cost of maintaining many different types of aircraft as opposed to having compatible fleets.

With the HAF now receiving into service upgraded Lockheed Martin F-16V Fighting Falcon jets and new Dassault Rafales, as well as the Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) it is expected to shortly sign for, the service will have to sell off several older types.

Dendias acknowledged that the initiative to upgrade Greece’s F-16s to Viper level had been delayed, but he insisted that the nation will have an adequate fleet of planes by 2027 at the latest.

Earlier this year, the US State Department authorized a prospective US$8.6 billion sale of F-35 fighter jets and associated equipment to Greece.

According to the Pentagon’s Security Cooperation Agency, this deal could involve the procurement of up to 40 fighters, 42 engines, guidance systems, spare parts, and other ancillary equipment, with assurances that such transactions would not undermine US military readiness or disrupt the regional military balance.

Greece’s jets to Ukraine?

It has been reported that Ukraine would be interested in buying some of the fighter jets Greece will put up for sale. Kyiv has been pleading with NATO countries to arm it with fighter jets like the F-16 and the Mirage-2000s.

US Secretary of State Antony Blinken has asked Greece to send excess weapons to Ukraine following the deal to sell Athens the fifth-generation F-35 jets.

In a letter addressed to Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis, Blinken expressed interest in Greece’s defense capabilities that could be useful to Ukraine, contingent upon Ukraine’s interest and a subsequent assessment of the condition and approximate cost of the proposed assets.

However, despite announcing last year that Greece will train Ukrainian fighter pilots to fly the F-16, the country has remained tight-lipped about transferring fighter jets to Kyiv, unlike its other allies in NATO, like Denmark and the Netherlands, which are poised to deliver their respective F-16s to Ukraine later this year.

Countries like Norway and Belgium could also deliver their jets to Ukraine.

Massive ‘Devil Comet’ Heads Towards Earth on April 8th Eclipse

12P/Pons-Brooks, City-Size Comet Racing Toward Earth
The city-size comet races toward Earth. Credit: Mark Phillips / Flickr / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

According to NASA, a rare and huge comet known as “devil comet’ is expected to travel by Earth for the first time in 71 years and might be seen during the much-awaited total solar eclipse on April 8.

Officially named comet 12P/Pons-Brooks, the cryovolcanic comet is known as the “devil comet” due to its formation of two “horns” made up of ice and gas and periodic explosions.

Comets are made up of dust, frozen gases, ice and rocks bound together following the formation of the solar system, NASA says.

The comet, named 12P/Pons-Brooks (12P), is a 10.5 mile-wide (17 kilometers) ball of ice and rock that circles the sun on a highly elliptical, or stretched, orbit roughly every 71 years and is currently zooming toward our home star.

Devil comet frequently erupts

Like most other comets, 12P has a core of ice, gas and dust surrounded by a frozen shell, or nucleus. The comet’s nucleus is in turn enveloped by a cloud of icy dust, known as a coma, that slowly leaks out of the comet’s interior.

However, unlike most other comets, 12P is cryovolcanic, meaning that it frequently erupts when solar radiation cracks open large fissures in its nucleus, causing it to spray its highly pressurized icy guts, known as cryomagma, into space.

When this happens, its coma is significantly expanded, which temporarily makes it appear much brighter than normal.

12P hit the headlines in July last year, when astronomers watched it blow its top for the first time in 69 years. Since then it has continued to erupt fairly frequently.

During the initial eruptions, the comet’s expanded coma had an irregular shape, caused by a notch in the nucleus that blocked cryomagma outflow. This made the comet look like it had grown demonic horns, which earned the icy object its sinister nickname. However, during more recent eruptions, these horns seem to have disappeared.

As 12P has gotten closer to the sun, its coma — which has a green hue thanks to high levels of dicarbon (two carbon atoms stuck together) — has become much more visible. It has also grown a sizable tail made of dust and ice that is blown away from the coma by solar wind. As a result, astrophotographers are starting to snap much more striking shots of the comet.

Closest approach to Earth on June 2

12P is currently barreling through the inner solar system at speeds of around 40,000 mph (64,500 km/h).

The comet will reach its closest point to the sun on April 24, after which it will slingshot around our home star and be catapulted past Earth on its way back into the outer reaches of our cosmic neighborhood.

It will make its closest approach to Earth on June 2, around which time it should be visible to the naked eye in the night sky.

Related: Comet Last Seen by the Neanderthals Approaches Earth

The Balkan Wars in the Powder Keg of Europe

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Balkan Wars
The entry of Constantine I of Greece with George I of Greece and the Greek army in Thessaloniki. Public Domain

The Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913 resulted in significant territorial realignments in the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its remaining European territories, including Macedonia, Albania, and parts of Thrace. This reshaping of borders had long-lasting consequences for the political and ethnic landscape of the region.

The combined armies of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success during a series of battles that took place in the Balkan Peninsula.

Issues that led to the Balkan Wars

At the heart of the Balkan Wars were three issues: the disposition of Macedonia, the problem of Crete, and the liberation of the countries still under Ottoman control, especially Albania.

Some Macedonians wanted full unification with Greece. Others wanted a separate Macedonian state or wanted Macedonia to be included in a Serbian or Albanian or Bulgarian state. This issue was appallingly divisive, and the choice often was a matter of life or death. Guerrilla fighters and propagandists entered Macedonia from Greece and all the other countries of the region.

Athens actively supported the irredentist movement in Macedonia with money, materials, and about 2,000 troops. Thessaloniki became more of a Greek city as non-Greek merchants suffered boycotts and left. Greece’s lack of access to this key port heightened tension with the Slavic neighbors.

Under these circumstances, all the Great Powers became more involved in the Macedonian problem in the first decade of the 20th-Century.

Britain pressured Greece to curb guerrilla activities. When the Young Turks took over the government of the Ottoman Empire with a reformist agenda in 1908, a short period of cordial negotiations with the Greeks was chilled by reversion to nationalist, authoritarian rule in Constantinople.

New Ottoman intransigence over Crete and Macedonia combined with Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos‘ demand for complete reunification to raise the prospect of war in 1910.

The Balkan powers initiated the First Balkan War by marshaling more than one million troops and then declaring war on the Turks in October 1912. Venizelos’ military modernization paid rich dividends. Within a matter of weeks, the Greek army took Thessaloniki and besieged Ioannina to the west.

The armies of all three allies fought mainly to gain a favorable position in a postwar settlement. In the May 1913 Treaty of London, the Ottoman Empire ceded all its European possessions to the Balkan allies, with the exception of Thrace and Albania, the latter of which became independent.

Because the Treaty of London made no division of territory among the allies, and because Greece and Serbia had divided Macedonian territory between themselves in a bilateral agreement, Bulgaria attacked both, initiating the Second Balkan War. Greece and Serbia won victories that ensured major territorial gains at the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913.

The addition of southern Epirus, Macedonia, Crete, and some of the Aegean Islands expanded Greece by 68 percent, including some of the richest agricultural land on the peninsula, and the population nearly doubled. The major Greek cities of Ioannina and Thessaloniki were reclaimed.

Although more than three million Greeks remained in Ottoman territory, the Balkan Wars had brought the Megali Idea closer to realization than ever before, before the 1922 disaster in Asia Minor. When King Constantine was crowned following the assassination of King George in Thessaloniki in March 1913, national morale had reached a high point, but it didn’t last into the next decade.

Region remained volatile in the aftermath of the wars

While the Balkan Wars helped to establish some new nation-states, they also created tensions and conflicts between different ethnic and religious groups. The region remained volatile in the aftermath of the wars, leading to further conflicts and geopolitical tensions in the years that followed.

The Balkan Wars are often seen as a precursor to World War I. The conflicts heightened tensions between European powers and contributed to the complex web of alliances and rivalries that eventually erupted into a global conflict in 1914.

The Balkan Wars demonstrated the potential for regional conflicts to escalate into wider European conflagrations.

Serbia President’s Alarming Message of Upcoming Balkan Conflict

Aleksandar Vucic Serbia
“Difficult days are ahead of Serbia,” Vucic said. Credit: NATO

Aleksandar Vucic, the president of Serbia, warned of a potential confrontation on Tuesday by posting a gloomy message on social media about an unidentified threat to his nation.

“Difficult days are ahead of Serbia,” he said in a Facebook post. “At this moment, it is not easy to say what kind of news we have received in the last 48 hours, [but] they directly threaten our vital national interests, both of Serbia and [Republika] Srpska,” he added, referring to the ethnically Serb Republika Srpska.

Vucic says Serbia may fight a difficult challenge

He vaguely alluded to Serbia fighting and winning in a difficult challenge ahead.

“In the coming days, I will introduce the people of Serbia to all the challenges that lie ahead. It will be difficult,” he said. “We will fight. Serbia will win.”

The strange allusion comes months after Serb militants assaulted a town in northern Kosovo, killing four people. The attack, which happened in September of last year, was timed to a “unprecedented” build-up of Serb forces near the Kosovo border, according to the White House at the time.

The episodes had sparked worries that Kosovo, a Balkan nation that proclaimed its independence from Serbia in 2008, and Serbia, which does not recognize it as a separate nation, might like to intensify their confrontation.

Despite Belgrade’s announcement last year that it was withdrawing its forces from the border, Kosovo Prime Minister Albin Kurti recently posted a video on social media that appeared to show Serbian military formations “meters away” from Kosovo’s border.

Kurti declared, “We are keeping a close eye on the situation in case there is any attempt to enter [our] territory.”

Last week, a senior American official warned Serbia against taking any military action.

According to Assistant Secretary Jim O’Brien of the Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, “President Vucic knows well that any use of force against Kosovo would be unacceptable, would be regarded as putting in danger the NATO troops.”

Serbia considers Kosovo to be part of its territory because it holds deep historical and religious importance for Belgrade. It contains many medieval Serbian Orthodox Christian monasteries and is seen as the cradle of Serbian national identity.

Belgrade considers Kosovo an autonomous province

Kosovo declared independence in 2008, but Serbia rejects this declaration and considers it an autonomous province. While over one hundred countries recognize Kosovo as independent, Serbia does not.

Last week, Vucic alluded to the possibility of Serbia withdrawing from the Council of Europe (CoE) if Kosovo gains membership.

In an interview with Prva TV on March 22nd, Vucic expressed Serbia’s discontent with the prospect of Kosovo’s acceptance into the CoE, hinting at severe consequences for the region’s geopolitical landscape.

“You go with that and then we’ll see if Serbia stays in the Council of Europe or not,” Vucic said in an interview.

The CoE, an intergovernmental organization comprising 47 member states, is tasked with upholding human rights, democracy, and the rule of law across Europe.

The Mysterious Lost Civilization of Harappan

 Statue from Moenjodaro
The Harappan civilization, the third oldest in the Ancient East, was located in the Indus River Valley and remains mysterious regarding its way of life and decline. Credit: Smn121 / CC-BY-SA-3.0 / Wikimedia Commons

The mysterious Harappan civilization is considered the third oldest one in the ancient East after Egypt and Mesopotamia. It was located in the Indus River Valley in what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of India and sparked many theories about its lifestyle and decline.

The area where they were situated also gave rise to an alternative name—the Indus Valley Civilization. Researchers believe that it existed in the period from approximately 7000 BC to 600 BC.

The two most famous cities of the Harappan culture, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, are located in modern-day Pakistan. Scientists believe they were very densely populated for the ancient world. According to various estimates, from 23,000 to 50,000 people lived there. In total, the Harappan civilization consisted of about five million people.

Scientists believe that this civilization was quite developed in terms of “long-distance exchange networks, planned urban settlements, sanitation facilities, standardized weights and measures, and a sphere of influence.” Harrapan houses had running water, and the ancient society itself had a writing system.

The decline of the Harappan civilization is estimated to have occurred from around 2000 BC to approximately 1500 BC, with new theories continuously surfacing regarding its disappearance.

Harappan Civilization’s Discovery

The story of the discovery of the Harappan civilization is connected with a British soldier traitor. James Lewis served in the British East India Company but then deserted the company and changed his name to Charles Masson. He began traveling around India and at the same time excavated ancient monuments.

As a result, his activities in 1829 led to the discovery of the ancient city of Harappa. Masson initially believed it was founded by Alexander the Great during his Indian campaigns. However, the discovery turned out to be more mysterious than he thought.

After returning to Britain, Masson published his book Narrative of various journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Panjab. It caused widespread resonance and attracted the attention of historians. One of them, Sir Alexander Cunningham, went to the site of the discovery and began excavations.

However, the first suggestions that Harappa was a previously unknown ancient civilization appeared only at the beginning of the twentieth century. At the same time, archaeologists learned about the nearby site of Mohenjo-Daro and began excavations there. Experts identified similarities between the two cities, coming to the conclusion that they had discovered a new ancient civilization.

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, Largest Cities of Civilization

Archaeological site of Harappa
Archaeological site of Harappa. Credit: Sara jilani / CC-BY-SA-3.0 / Wikimedia Commons

Harappa, spread over an area of 370 acres, had a high level of urban design. In this area, archaeologists found small brick houses and a citadel. The streets were laid out in a grid pattern, demonstrating the highly advanced culture that planned them. However, the architecture was strikingly different from that of the Egyptians or Mesopotamians since there were no remains of temples, palaces, royal statues, or monumental structures in Harappa. Apparently, the largest structures discovered were granaries.

What was particularly stunning is the presence in both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro of sewerage and complex drainage systems. It is believed that these technologies of the Harappan civilization were superior in their development to the Ancient Roman ones. In addition, Mohenjo-daro also had a public bathhouse.

Excavations have shown that smaller settlements were distinguished by early planning. The cites had the same vision which presupposed the presence of a central government that carried out the planning of future cities and investment in construction. UNESCO designated the ruins of Mohenjo-daro as a World Heritage site in 1980.

Crafts and Culture

Studies show that Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro “appear to have become centers for trade and production.” This civilization is best known for its advanced craftsmanship, agricultural expertise, and skillful trading practices. Archaeologists discovered various significant figurines and statues. Among the most notable artifacts is the bronze statuette known as the Dancing Girl, depicting a teenage girl with a confident posture. Some figures, portraying mothers with children or domestic scenes, are believed to have been used as toys.

The most renowned relics from this civilization are small seals crafted from soapstone and engraved with a copper burin. While many seals depict a humpless “unicorn,” a bull in profile, others showcase elephants, bison, rhinoceros, or tigers.

Some seals feature scenes with apparent mythological or religious connotations, although interpreting them remains challenging. These seals were likely utilized as both amulets and practical means to identify goods for long-distance trade, displaying a superior level of craftsmanship and wider distribution as compared to other artistic artifacts.

'Unicorn' seal
Notable relics from this civilization are small soapstone seals, showcasing a humpless “unicorn,” a bull in profile. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

Their skillful use of standardized tools, mostly made of flint, copper, and bronze, reflected their ability to create a variety of artifacts, including knives, fishhooks, arrowheads, and bracelets.

Unknown Harappan Civilization’s Language

Even the language spoken by the people of the Harappan civilization is shrouded in unsolved mysteries. Scientists have tried to decipher it, but it remains unknown. This has led to various hypotheses regarding its nature, many of which include the concept of influence from other languages.

The script used in the Harappan inscriptions, consisting of approximately 500 characters, is a complex mystery. There is still no consensus on whether these characters are ideographic, logographic or something else. Various teams made several attempts to decipher it, but no final agreement was reached. Today, it is known that the script was written from right to left. It has been recognized in about 2,000 short inscriptions, varying from single characters to those with approximately twenty characters.

One common theory suggests that the Harappan language may have been related to the Dravidian languages and perhaps even represented a Proto-Dravidian language itself. In support of this theory, a recent research used extensive analysis of archaeological, linguistic, and historical data. It determined that the terms for “elephant” — ‘piri’ and ‘piru’ — in Bronze Age Mesopotamia were borrowed from the Proto-Dravidian word ‘pilu,’ which was prevalent in the Indus Valley Civilization.

Another point of view postulates the idea of a “lost type”, implying that a language has no living continuations, except for the possible influence of a historical substrate, especially in Vedic Sanskrit.

However, there are alternative hypotheses that have received less widespread academic acceptance. One of them includes the idea that it is an Indo-European or Semitic language. Moreover, it is likely that the people of the Harappan civilization spoke multiple languages, just as Sumerian and Akkadian coexisted in ancient Mesopotamia.

Theories Around Harappan Civilization Decline

There are several theories pertaining to the cause of the decline and disappearance of the Harappan civilization, and scientists continue to conduct research to this day.

One theory relates to repeated changes in the course of the Indus River. According to this, changes have affected Mohenjo-daro, forcing residents to look elsewhere for survival due to water shortages. The crucial role of water in agriculture also led to the migration of the Harappans to more fertile regions.

The decline and disappearance of the Harappan civilization is also associated with the appearance of leprosy. This implies an outbreak of plague that resulted in mass migration to rural areas, potentially contributing to the decline of civilization.

However, one of the most common theories has long been about the Aryans. The Vedic literature of India had long been translated and interpreted by Western scholars, leading to the development of the Aryan Invasion Theory. This theory proposed that a light-skinned race, the Aryans from the north, conquered the southern lands, establishing their culture and language.

Skeletal remains discovered in Mohenjo-daro were initially thought to be evidence of a conflict. However, subsequent scholars argued that the skeletons were a result of hasty burials rather than invasion massacres. Furthermore, scientists suggested that the Aryan theory “is based purely on linguistic conjectures which are unsubstantiated.”

Scientists Claimed to Solve Harappan Civilization Disappearance

One of the latest theories regarding the disappearance of the Harappan civilization suggests that climate change played a significant role. Scientists delved into the analysis of sediment cores extracted from the Arabian Sea, scrutinizing its chemical composition and extracting foraminifera, microscopic single-celled organisms found in the ocean.

Their examination revealed a pattern of alternating lighter foraminifera, rich in calcium carbonate, and darker ones, indicating an increased influx of sediment from the land. This alternating pattern served as a marker for climate fluctuations.

Through a comprehensive study of the foraminifera’s chemistry and DNA, researchers were able to reconstruct the ancient climate on Earth. By analyzing isotopes in the sediment, they determined its age, discovering a notable increase in winter moisture concurrent with a decline in summer precipitation. These changes likely prompted the Harappans to consider migrating from the Indus Valley.

Fortified Settlements Containing Ancient Open-Air Temples Found in Turkey

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Masumu-Pak Fortress Open Air Temple, one of the newly discovered fortified settlements
A new archaeological discovery in Turkey reveals fortified settlements housing ancient open-air temples in the Eastern Anatolia Region. Credit: Pamukkale University Social Sciences Institute Journal

In Tunceli province, in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, researchers found two forts and two 7th century BC new open-air temples.

This discovery is part of the Iron Age and Hellenistic (Greek) Age Tunceli Survey project. Experts have been exploring Tunceli since 2016.

Recent archaeological efforts have led to the discovery of a new site, the Masumu-Pak Fortress, alongside a detailed examination of certain aspects of the already-known Aşağı Doluca Fortress.

The findings, including the two fortress settlements and two open-air temples, got published in the 61st issue of the Pamukkale University Social Sciences Institute Journal.

A new type of temple not known before

Associate Professor Serkan Erdoğan pointed out that one of the newly found fortress settlements sits in the far east of present-day Tunceli province, while the other lies almost at its western edge.

He mentioned that the two fortress settlements called Lower Harik (Doluca) in the southeast Anatolian region contained a new type of temple that they hadn’t seen previously.

“The two fortress settlements, one named Masumu-Pak fortress located in the Hozat-Çemişgezek -Ovacık triangle and the other named Aşağı Harik (Doluca), located on the banks of the Peri Çayı (Peri stream) east of Nazımiye in the southeastern Anatolian region host a new type of temple that we have not known before,” he stated.

Researchers observed that while the Lower Doluca Fortress shows strong signs of the Iron Age, both the Iron Age and Medieval structures are present in the Masumu-Pak Fortress.

They discovered that the open-air temples in Lower Doluca Fortress and Masumu-Pak Fortress have similar shapes and construction styles.

The key similarity between these outdoor prayer areas in both settlements is the architectural feature resembling an altar carved into the rocks, accompanied by a platform in front of it, as reported by Arkeonews.

Open-Air temples date back to the 7th century BC

The researchers revealed that the temples date back to around the 7th century BC, a time when the Urartians had control over the region.

It’s still uncertain whether these temples, with their unique features, were constructed for local deities or for the worship of well-known gods of that era.

Serkan Erdoğan mentioned that the Lower Harik Castle and Temple, situated in the current castle hamlet settlement, is also recognized as a sacred site called Moro Sur (Red Snake). Today, those seeking healing still invoke ‘Ya Moro Sur, Tu esta (You exist, Moro Sur),’ as a tradition.

Erdoğan highlighted that the snake symbol is deeply rooted in the region’s geography. He noted that the Moresur myth possesses a unique and genuine structure, with the area’s history as a sacred site tracing back to ancient times.

The Ferocious Wars of Alexander the Great’s Successors After His Death

A map of the Diadochi, who fought over and carved up Alexander's empire into several kingdoms after his death, a legacy which reigned on and continued the influence of ancient Greek culture abroad for over 300 more years. This map depicts the kingdoms of the Diadochi c. 301 BC, after the Battle of Ipsus.
The Successors fought over and carved up Alexander the Great’s empire into several kingdoms after his death, a legacy which reigned on and continued the influence of ancient Greek culture abroad for over three hundred more years. This map depicts the kingdoms of the Successors c. 301 BC after the Battle of Ipsus. Credit: Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd 1911. Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

The Wars of the Diadochi, or the Wars of Alexander’s Successors, were a series of conflicts that erupted among the generals of Alexander the Great. These were known as the Diadochi, which means “heirs” in Greek. These wars took place over who would inherit the vast empire Alexander left behind upon his death in 323 BC.

The historically significant conflicts, which spanned over four decades from 322 to 281 BC, were profound struggles for power, legacy, and the right to be seen as the legitimate heir to one of history’s largest empires. This means these civil war-like conflicts were not merely battles for territory of financial gains. The Diadochi, once united under the Macedonian sun of Alexander’s banner, turned against each other in a bid to control the vast empire. The empire stretched from the Adriatic and Ionian Sea in Europe to the borders of India.

Thus, this period marked the beginning of the Hellenistic era. It was a time when Greek culture spread across and influenced a vast portion of an ancient world once dominated by the mighty Persian Empire. The outcome of these wars led to the division of Alexander’s empire into several, smaller Hellenistic kingdoms. Each one of them was ruled by one of his former generals. This fundamentally changed the political landscape of the ancient Near East and the Mediterranean with profound consequences for centuries to come.

An AI depiction of Alexander the Great and his horse, Bucephalus.
An AI depiction of Alexander the Great and his horse, Bucephalus. Credit: MidJourney for the Greek Reporter.

The Successors’ bid for Alexander’s empire

The sudden death of Alexander the Great in Babylon left his empire without a clear successor. His generals, the Diadochi, were not prepared for such an eventuality. Initially, they attempted to govern the empire through a collective regency. However, this fragile arrangement quickly disintegrated due to personal ambitions and deep-seated rivalries amongst themselves.

The Partition of Babylon in 323 BC was meant to divide the empire among the most powerful generals. Unfortunately, however, this only managed to formalize the divisions and set the stage for the conflicts that were about to follow.

The immediate aftermath of Alexander’s death turned the empire’s vast territories into a luxurious and sought-after product that was about to go on sale. For the generals of Alexander, everything was now up for grabs. Each one of them seeks to carve out their own realm and enjoy the privileges of power.

Alexander’s son, Alexander IV, was still an infant, and his brother, Philip III Arrhidaeus, was considered unfit to rule. Hence, the lack of a universally recognized heir complicated the succession even further. This power vacuum led to a series of short-lived alliances and betrayals. The Diadochi were now ready for position and territory in what would turn into a series of wars in which Greeks would fight Greeks for power and status.

The World History Encyclopedia notes that, although the initial division of the empire was meant to be a temporary solution, it very quickly unraveled. This led to the first of many wars, as the generals broke their fragile alliances in pursuit of greater power.

Alexander the Great and Craterus in a lion hunt, mosaic from Pella, Greece, late 4th century BC
Alexander the Great and Craterus in a lion hunt, mosaic from Pella, Greece, late 4th century BC. Credit: Archaeological Museum of Pella, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Alexander’s Successors wars explained

The Wars of the Diadochi did not happen overnight. They were fought in several phases, each marked by shifting alliances, royal drama, and a series of smaller battles that reshaped the territories under each general’s control.

The First War of the Diadochi set the precedent for the conflicts that would follow. In these wars, key figures such as Ptolemy, Antigonus, Cassander, and Seleucus emerged as the principal players in this deadly game of thrones. The Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC was one of the most decisive confrontations. It resulted in the death of Antigonus and a significant realignment of power among the Diadochi.

The complexity of these wars cannot be overstated. Each phase saw the Diadochi use a mix of military and strategic might, careful diplomacy, and treachery to gain the upper hand. Heritage History highlights the second war of the Diadochi. This began in 318 BC, when Antigonus, the Strategos—Greek for Commander—of Asia, moved to assert his dominance over the territories in Asia Minor and the eastern provinces.

The conflict was the beginning of decades of warfare. During this period, the Diadochi and their successors fought over what was left of the once massive empire of Alexander. These wars were also characterised by their brutality and the often shifting fortunes of the combatants. With each victory or defeat, these battles would reshape the political landscape of the entire Hellenistic world.

The cultural and economic links of the Hellenistic kingdoms

As one can imagine, the Wars of the Diadochi had profound implications for the cohesion of Alexander the Great’s empire. The relentless conflicts among his former generals led to the gradual disintegration of the unity of the empire. As a result, separate, smaller and weaker Hellenistic kingdoms emerged.

However, although they were politically divided, these entities continued to be linked culturally and economically. This happened as Greek education, language, and traditions continued to spread throughout the regions. The Hellenistic period was characterized by a remarkable synthesis of Greek as well as local cultures, leading to advancements in art, science, and philosophy. Despite the constant wars, these kingdoms were a melting pot of a new, emerging Hellenistic identity that combined different customs and traditions.

Greek education, or paideia, became the focal point of Hellenistic society. It managed to preserve the sense of “Greekness” even after it was influenced by non-Greek cultures. This educational focal point, which included the promotion of philosophy, politics, arts, and physical training in local schools, was not only a means of cultural progress. It became a tool for social cohesion among the Greek-speaking elite, offering a much-needed sense of unity.

The Greek language became the lingua franca of the Hellenistic world. It facilitated trade and communication across vast distances, offering a common way of expression to millions of people. The spread of Hellenism also had a significant impact on trade. The interconnectedness of the Hellenistic kingdoms facilitated an increase in the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. This era also saw the establishment of new trade routes that extended from the Mediterranean all the way to India and Central Asia. These routes would endure for centuries, connecting the Roman Empire with the East.

Paintings of ancient Macedonian soldiers, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century BC
Paintings of ancient Macedonian soldiers, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century BC. Credit: Ancient painters of Rome Italy, Pinterest, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Speculations on Alexander the Great’s untimely death

One cannot help but speculate on what might have happened if Alexander had not died young. It’s possible that the empire would have maintained its unity for a longer period. Alexander’s vision of a truly multicultural society, in which conquered peoples were integrated and Hellenistic ideas were adopted alongside local customs, might have led to a more stable and cohesive empire.

The early death of Alexander left his empire without the strong leadership it needed. The empire could no longer continue on with his policies of cultural integration and expansion. This led to detrimental consequences for its cohesion. As a result, the empire fractured. However, the spread of Hellenistic culture continued on, shaping the ancient world in ways that would be visible even to this day.

In conclusion, the Wars of the Diadochi did break Alexander’s empire into pieces. However, this fragmentation also facilitated the spread of Greek culture as well as Greek education across the then-known world.

The Hellenistic kingdoms that emerged from these wars became the epicenters for a new, cosmopolitan culture. This culture blended Greek and local elements, leaving a legacy that would influence subsequent generations to this day.

Scientists Solve 20,000-Year Mystery of Eurasia Human Migration

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Scientists claim to have discovered where early humans spent 20,000 years living in the midst of their migration from Africa to Eurasia.
Scientists claim to have discovered where early humans spent 20,000 years living in the midst of their migration from Africa to Eurasia. Credit: Adam Jones, Ph.D. – Global Photo Archive. CC BY 2.0/flickr

Scientists claim to have discovered the place where early humans resided in the midst of their migration from the African continent to Eurasia, solving a 20,000-year missing gap in human history.

It has been common knowledge for some time that our ancient ancestors left Africa about 70,000 years ago and proliferated throughout Asia and Europe 45,000 years ago. However, where those early homo sapiens spent their time in between has long been an unsolved puzzle.

A team of international researchers has discovered that around a thousand of these travelers lived in a region that spanned the Middle East, known as the Persian Plateau.
The thesis was confirmed using ancient DNA, modern gene pools, and palaeoecological evidence. This clarified that the area would have been an ideal inhabitable space before they continued to settle in Asia and Europe.

“Our results provide the first full picture of the whereabouts of the ancestors of all present-day non-Africans in the early phases of the colonization of Eurasia,” Luca Pagani of the University of Padova in Italy, senior author of the study, told the Daily Mail.

The research team examined ancient genomes from West Central Eurasia and China and discovered that ancestors of present-day Eurasians emerged from the region 45,000 years ago. They then colonized most of Eurasia and Oceania. Simulations were produced to afford a look back in time to the landscape and climate of the Persian Plateau. This showed it was higher during the time Homo sapiens arrived.

According to researchers, this gave those early humans an advantage over surrounding areas. It helped them survive and eventually migrate to Eurasia.

“Furthermore, the presence of a viable area located on both shores of the Red Sea and stretching across the Mediterranean Sea would seem to offer a suitable habitat,” reads the study published in the journal Nature.

What was life like for humans on the Persian Plateau before heading to Eurasia?

These humans resided in small, mobile bands of hunter-gatherers, as per researchers. The region supposedly offered a diverse range of ecological settings, from forests to grasslands and savannahs. There were fluctuations over time between dry and wet periods.

There apparently would have been plenty of resources available, with evidence showing the hunting of wild gazelle, sheep, and goats, study co-author Michael Petraglia from Australia’s Griffith University told the Daily Mail.

“Their diet would have been composed of edible plants and small to large-sized game,” he added. “Hunter gathered bands appear to have practiced a seasonal lifestyle, inhabiting the lowlands in the cooler months and the mountainous areas in the warmer months.”

The Homo sapiens living in the region at the time had dark skin and hair, possibly resembling the Gumuz or Anuak people who now exist in parts of East Africa.

“Cave art simultaneously appeared as soon as people left the hub. So these cultural achievements might have been brewed while in the hub,” Pagani told the Daily Mail. However, no fossilized remains of human beings have ever been found on the Persian Plateau but have been unearthed in Arabia and the Levant. This band of Homo sapiens would be direct descendants of those from the region, the study claimed.

Neanderthal Mother diorama.
Neanderthal mother diorama. Credit: Kojotisko. CC BY 1.0/flickr

Homo sapiens were not the first human species to inhabit land outside of Africa, including the region studied by the research team. Ancient interbreeding by our species has left a residual Neanderthal contribution to the DNA of modern non-Africans.

“Neanderthals are attested in the area before the arrival of Homo Sapiens, so the region may well have been where that interaction took place,” Vallini told the Daily Mail.