The renovated M/V Daleel conducted the Cyprus-Greece ferry route last summer. Credit: Scandro Holding Ltd
A popular ferry link between Greece and Cyprus is set to pick up service again on May 29th after a long hiatus with funding coming from Cyprus to keep the transport project alive.
The Cyprus-Greece ferry link was eminently popular when it started up in 2022, and in 2023, it carried 7,407 passengers and 2,518 vehicles despite its 30-hour journey. A first-class single cabin ticket is priced at 73 euros ($79) per person one-way with return tickets coming in at 146 euros ($158). Double cabins are priced at 68 euros ($74) for a single journey and 136 euros ($148) roundtrip.
First-class four-berth cabin tickets are 63 euros ($68) one way and 126 euros ($137) for a roundtrip. Second-class prices are 50 euros ($54) one way and 96 euros ($104) for a return. Airline-style seats are 38 euros ($41) and 76 euros ($82) for those who don’t want a cabin for the overnight voyage.
Officials have said the voyage was particularly popular with students who wanted to transport a greater amount of belongings, as well as with those who aren’t keen on flying or simply want the luxury of a longer trip.
Success of the Cyprus-Greece ferry last year
Last year, the Cyprus-Greece ferry began its second season in May, lifting anchor at Limassol port and sailing to Piraeus with 156 passengers. Cyprus Deputy Minister of Shipping Marina Hatzimanoli and Mayor of Limassol Nikos Nicolaides were on board the passenger ferry Daleela to celebrate the occasion, along with contracting company Scandro Holdings executives and other partners.
Hatzimanoli told attendees that the ferry was high on the ministry’s priorities and expressed confidence in the success of the second season, which had already hit the seven thousand reservations mark by this point. For his part, Nikolaides had hoped the operation’s success would surpass that of 2022 and recalled his experience as a passenger on the ferry’s maiden voyage two years ago.
The ferry includes a restaurant, cafeteria, and clinic in addition to 38 first-class cabins (110 passengers), 68 second-class cabins, and 110 outdoor seats. It can also accommodate up to a hundred vehicles.
The link was reintroduced last year after obtaining special permission from the European Union, allowing the state to subsidize the otherwise non-viable route. The government offered a €5.5 million annual subsidy to secure interest by shipowners to operate the regular ferry link between Limassol and Piraeus.
In addition to the port of Limassol, Scandro Holding Ltd included the Larnaca port in last year’s itinerary in response to travelers’ requests. In comments to the Cyprus News Agency, Larnaca Mayor Andreas Vyras said port operators Kition Ocean agreed with the ferry operators, Scandro Holding, to include Larnaca.
The ultimate purpose of Scandro Holding Ltd is to connect Greece and Cyprus by sea.
The School of Athens with Aristotle and Plato. Credit: Slices of Light, Flickr, CC BY 2.0
Few names of ancient Greece shine as much as those of Aristotle. This ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great, left a timeless, profound, and indelible mark on virtually every field of knowledge he touched.
Yet, as vast as his contributions have been to this world, a shroud of mystery remains over the works of Aristotle that have been lost during the course of time. What secrets might they hold? How could they further help our understanding of his profound insights and more generally, of the world we live in?
Bridging Aristotle’s ancient wisdom with modern science
Aristotle was a true polymath in the purest sense of this word. With his intellectual curiosity spanning from the ethics of happiness to the bonds that tie the natural world, he wanted to know everything and did everything in his power to understand as much as he could.
His contributions laid the foundational stones in fields such as metaphysics, ethics, politics, and natural sciences, among many others. His works have had an everlasting influence for countless generations. Unfortunately, the majority of his intellectual contributions recorded in his works have not survived the relentless effects of time.
The loss of such a significant portion of Aristotle’s ideas poses a crucial question to everyone who has been inspired by his legacy: What wisdom and knowledge have we been deprived of?
The mystery behind Aristotle’s lost philosophical works
The lost works of Aristotle are not just missing pages in human history. They show us the gaps in our collective understanding of humanity. The pieces that are missing from this lifetime of work strip us of philosophical thought and ancient methodologies that would have very well changed the world we live in today.
Imagine the dialogues that might have dealt with the deeper philosophical issues on the nature of reality. Think about the questions that Aristotle might have asked aiming to further explore the ethical dimensions of human existence, for example.
These works could offer us all fresh perspectives on Aristotle’s thinking. They could have provided us with missing links in the evolution of ancient scholarship and expertise. The absence of these texts leaves scholars piecing together a puzzle without all the pieces, something that they have been doing with every other ancient philosopher. This will leave us forever speculating on the full scope of the mind and the ideas of Aristotle.
This true enigma surrounding the lost works of Aristotle is not thus simply a matter of historical curiosity, confined within the boundaries of some nerds or scholars who spend most of their lives buried in ancient texts and books. It represents a real, tangible void in our collective understanding of classical philosophy and makes it clear that what we know is only a fraction of what our ancestors knew.
Imagine the wealth of knowledge that could have been encapsulated in those works that we have not yet found. Think about the tools they could have offered us to get untold insights into the ancient world. These tools could have helped us follow the nuanced thought processes of one of history’s greatest minds. However, as time remains relentless and takes with it everything we lose, they are all now shrouded in mystery.
These lost works could potentially redefine our interpretation of Aristotle’s philosophy. Probably, we would now be offering new perspectives on ethics, logic, and the natural sciences, based on these mysterious ideas that we will never come to learn of. Their absence is a crucial reminder of how much of our intellectual heritage remains just beyond our grasp. It is a puzzle with just too many missing pieces that scholars around the globe would love to further uncover and explore.
The School of Aristotle in ancient Mieza in Naoussa, Central Macedonia, Greece. This was the place where the great philosopher taught Alexander the Great. Credit: Jean Housen, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0
Aristotle’s impact on Western philosophy and science
The influence of Aristotle on Western thought cannot be overstated. His works established entire fields and laid the ground for many others. They shaped the contours of metaphysics, ethics, and natural sciences for centuries to come. It’s fascinating to consider how his lost works might have further enriched modern philosophy and science. Could they have accelerated the advancement of certain scientific principles? Or offered solutions to philosophical dilemmas that continue to perplex us to this very day? The impact of Aristotle’s surviving works is monumental. This is the only thing we need to know about the importance of his lost writings. There must have been works with unimaginable potential to further shed light on the dark corners of our understanding of the world and its reality.
As we collectively continue to seek out and understand the fragments of his lost works, we keep alive the spirit of inquiry and knowledge that Aristotle championed throughout his life.
The hunt for Aristotle’s lost works
The pursuit of Aristotle’s lost works is like a modern-day intellectual treasure hunt. Historians and scholars are the explorers who try their best to get a hint from the surviving works about what might hide in those we lost.
This quest involves extensive research in ancient texts, deciphering long-forgotten references, and piecing together small fragments that have survived over the centuries. Each discovery, no matter how small or big, is a cause for celebration among scholars. It offers a glimpse into Aristotle’s comprehensive vision and gives us a bigger picture than the one we have already formed of him. Thus, the ongoing efforts to compile and interpret these fragments are attempts to reclaim a piece of our shared common understanding to fill in the gaps left by time.
Aristotle’s timeless influence
The story of Aristotle’s lost works is not a done deal that we simply accept and move on. It is a narrative of loss but also of discovery. It is a tale that has no end, and it speaks volumes about the fragility of human knowledge and the importance of preservation. What we know now will not necessarily be shared by future generations.
The search to uncover these lost teachings of Aristotle is ongoing, and as we continue to search for these works, we do more than just seek to complete his record. We try to understand the lengths and breadths of human thought and experience as seen through the eyes of one of its best observers.
column of Justinian in Constantinople. AI-generated image
The mystery of what happened to the ancient column of Justinian in Constantinople, also known as the Colossus of Justinian, still puzzles historians and archaeologists.
The colossal bronze statue of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I was built during Justinian’s rule in the sixth century AD, most likely about 543 AD. Standing tall and clutching a globe in his palm, the monument represented Justinian’s dominance over the entire world.
Although the existence of the column is mentioned by several historical sources, its fate remains a mystery.
Several Byzantine writers mention the statue, including Procopius, who described its construction and dedication in his book “Buildings”. The column appears in various Byzantine artworks, like mosaics and miniatures, offering visual proof of its existence. Travelers who visited Constantinople after its fall by the Ottomans also documented seeing the column, further solidifying its historical presence.
Reconstruction of the column, after Cornelius Gurlitt, 1912. Public Domain
The column was 105 feet high
The column survived intact until late Byzantine times when it was described by Nicephorus Gregoras, as well as by several Russian pilgrims to the city.
The latter also mentioned the existence, before the column, of a group of three bronze statues of “pagan (or Saracen) emperors”, placed on shorter columns or pedestals, who kneeled in submission before it. These survived until the late 1420s but were removed sometime before 1433.
A recent book by Elena N. Boeck (Ph.D., Yale), Professor of History of Art at DePaul University, titled “The Bronze Horseman of Justinian in Constantinople“, cites an Italian traveler to Constantinople called Cristoforo Buondelmonti.
According to him the monument was 70 cubits (105 feet) in height and showed the horseman with a golden apple in the left hand, the right hand threatening “Turkey” and the east.
Boeck, who specializes in the arts of the medieval Mediterranean world, says that after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II took down the monument and it was eventually melted down.
She mentions a Frenchman called Pierre Gilles who saw pieces of the statue around 1550, the emperor’s leg taller than a man, the nose and a hoof each 9 inches long.
Another depiction of the column. Public Domain
An impressive monument in Constantinople
According to what we know now statue of Justinian was an impressive monument, a testament to both the emperor’s ambition and the engineering prowess of the Byzantine Empire.
The main structure was built with brick, a strong and readily available material. This brick core was then covered with decorative bronze plates, giving the column a gleaming metallic appearance. The column stood on a seven-stepped marble platform, further elevating the statue and adding a touch of luxury.
The highlight was a colossal bronze equestrian statue, depicting Emperor Justinian himself, dressed in a triumphant outfit resembling the “dress of Achilles” (according to historian Procopius), Justinian likely sported an impressive cuirass and a plumed helmet.
The emperor sat astride a horse, holding a globus cruciger (a sphere representing Earth surmounted by a cross) in his left hand and extending his right hand eastward, possibly symbolizing his victories or Constantinople’s dominion.
Illustration from the Nuremberg Chronicle (the column is on the right). Public Domain
Theories on the mystery
The exact fate of the Column of Justinian in Constantinople is a bit murky, but there are some competing theories.
An article in the Byzantine Legacy journal says that it was commonly asserted that Mehmed II destroyed the column and had the statue melted down. It is more likely that it became part of his collection of antiquities.
Furthermore, the article says that the column survived until the 16th century. It is possible that the statue was removed because its talismanic power was viewed as a threat by the Ottomans. Turkish sources suggest that the column collapsed during the reign of Sultan Selim or Suleiman.
Another theory suggests that the column finally succumbed to the elements. Accounts suggest it remained standing until the early 16th century, then collapsed in a major earthquake around 1509.
It’s also possible the Ottomans respected the column as an antiquity and took the statue for their collection rather than destroying it.
While the specifics are unclear, it seems likely the column met its end sometime in the early 16th century, either through natural disaster or Ottoman intervention.
Depiction of Saints Raphael, Nicholas and Irene at Saint Leonidas church, Dimaina. Credit Schuppi. CC BY 4.0/Wikimedia Commons/Schuppi
Today is the 564th anniversary of the Martyrs of Lesbos, Saints Raphael, Nicholas, and Irene, who were killed by the Turks on Bright Tuesday on April 9, 1463. This was ten years after the fall of Constantinople.
According to a 20th century legend, Raphael, Nicholas, and Irene of Lesbos, venerated as saints and martyrs in the Eastern Orthodox Church, lived on the island of Lesbos in the 15th century and were murdered by Turkish raiders in April 1463. Raphael is said to be the abbot of a monastery of Karyes, close to the village of Thermi. Nicholas was a deacon in the same monastery, and Irene was the 12-year-old daughter of the local mayor.
For hundreds of years, the people of Lesbos would make the pilgrimage on Bright Tuesday to the ruins of the monastery near Thermi. However, as the years went on, few could recall why the annual trip took place.
In 1959, a religious man named Angelos Rallis endeavored to build a chapel near the ruins of the monastery, and in the summer of that year, people at work on the site came across the relics of Saint Raphael while clearing up.
Not long after this, as legend has it, the saints began to appear before various inhabitants of Lesbos and shared the details of their lives and martyrdom. These accounts form the basis of Photios Kontoglou’s 1962 book A Great Sign, written in Greek.
Saint Raphael was born on the island of Ithaka around 1410 and raised by pious parents. His given name was George, but he took on the name Raphael when he became a monk. He was ordained to the holy priesthood and later rose to the offices of Archimandrite and Chancellor.
In 1453, Saint Raphael resided in Macedonia with his fellow monastic, the deacon Nicholas, who was born in Thessaloniki. In 1454, the Turks invaded Thrace, at which point the two monks fled to the island of Lesbos. They settled in the Monastery of the Nativity of the Theotokos near Thermi, where Saint Raphael became the igumen.
What happened to the saints of Lesbos?
The Turks raided the monastery in 1463, capturing the monks. The future saints were tortured from Holy Thursday through to Bright Tuesday. Saint Raphael was supposedly tied to a tree, while the Turks sawed through his jaw, killing him.
Saint Nicholas was also tortured but was made to watch his elder’s martyrdom before being killed. The story goes that Nicholas appeared to people and showed them the spot where his relics were consequently uncovered in June 1960.
Saint Irene, the 12-year-old daughter of the village mayor in Lesbos, Basil, had come with her family to the monastery to warn the monks about incoming raiders. The cruel perpetrators chopped off one of her arms and threw it down before her parents. Then the young girl was encased in a large earthen cask and a fire was lit underneath, slowly suffocating her.
Site of the monastery in Karyes. Credit: sovraskin. CC BY 2.0/flickr
Her parents were put to death but not before being forced to watch their daughter suffer these atrocities. Her grave and the earthen cask were discovered on May 12, 1961 after Saints Raphael, Nicholas, and Irene had supposedly appeared to residents and told them where to search.
Others who were also sanctified that day were Irene’s parents Basil and Maria, Theodore, the village teacher, and Eleni, the 15-year-old cousin of Irene.
It has been said that the saints appeared both separately and together, telling people that they wanted to be remembered. They requested that their icon be painted and that a church service be composed for them. It is said they helped people find their holy relics.
According to accounts of those who supposedly saw the saints, the master iconographer was Photios Kontoglou, and the church service was carried out by Father Gerasimos of Little Saint Anne Skete on Mount Athos.
Those who have allegedly seen the saints described what they looked like. Raphael is tall, middle-aged, with a beard of moderate length. His hair is black with speckles of grey, and his face is expressive. Nicholas is short and thin with a small blonde beard. Irene typically appears with a long, yellow dress down to the floor, and her blonde hair is in two braids that rest on either side of her chest.
Saints Raphael, Nicholas, and Irene (and those with them) are also commemorated on Bright Tuesday.
Vasily Lomachenko and George Kambosos Jr. will face off on May 12th for the IBF lightweight world title. Credit: Vasily Lomachenko / George Kambosos Jr. / Instagram
Greek-Australian boxer George Kambosos Jr. will face off against Ukrainian rival Vasiliy Lomachenko for the IBF lightweight world title in Perth, Australia on Sunday, May 12th.
Boxing fans are expecting an action-packed contest with both fighters having enjoyed moments at the pinnacle of boxing. However, both men suffered defeats at the hands of Devin Haney, knocking them off the top spots in the sport.
For both fighters, next month’s contest is a chance to make a big statement in the lightweight division, or as Kambosos puts it, to become the “lightweight king.”
Kambosos vs. Lomachenko
Kambosos and Lomachenko have both enjoyed storied careers with dramatic ups and downs. The Greek-Australian became the unified lightweight world champion in 2021 with a win over Teofimo Lopez, whereas his Ukrainian opponent is regarded as one of the sport’s most technically gifted boxers, with Olympic gold medals and world titles in three weight divisions.
Kambosos is entering the contest as the underdog, with most boxing pundits and fans expecting a decisive Lomachenko win thanks to the latter man’s now-legendary ring IQ and slick skills.
“This is the guy who was formerly the pound-for-pound No 1 fighter in the world, a three-division world champion, a two-time Olympic gold medallist,” Kambosos said during a recent interview. “So we totally understand his accolades, we respect him of course with what he’s done, and outside of boxing he’s a very good figure for sport.”
“But we respect what we’ve been able to do, too,” the Greek Australian boxer added. “Styles make fights. And the way we both bring that action, it’s gonna be something special. I truly believe this is going be a memorable fight.”
“As a man, as a person, as a fighter, you can’t fault the guy. But with all that respect, when it comes down to May 12, that respect is out the window and I’m coming to take his head out, and I’m sure he’s going to come and do the same thing to me.”
Tactical breakdown: what to expect on fight night
Both boxers have alluded to the old boxing adage, “Styles make fights,” but how do their styles compare? Kambosos mostly boxes as a pressure fighter, relying on aggression, speed, and excellent conditioning to overwhelm opponents.
In contrast, Lomachenko’s style is characterized by the use of feints, counters, and superior footwork to tactically break down opponents. Lomachenko’s ability to create angles in the ring is especially impressive, and he blends pressure on the offense with responsible defense.
Kambosos fights in the orthodox stance (left hand and left foot forwards), whereas Lomachenko is a southpaw (right hand and right leg forwards), which means that both fighters’ lead hands are positioned on the outside relative to each other. This can obstruct the lead hands of both fighters, making it difficult for them to land jabs, the most important punches in boxing.
Kambosos often fights with his lead hand low. This means that he can throw the jab at an awkward angle below an opponent’s eye level but it may also leave him more open to Lomachenko’s punching lane.
Lomachenko is typically a slow starter. In the early rounds, his punch output is much lower because he needs time to read his opponents to set up traps and counterpunching opportunities. Kambosos may be able to capitalize on this and steal away the first half of the fight if Lomachenko is too inactive. Teofimo Lopez and Devin Haney, who were generally outclassed by Lomachenko in the second halves of their respective fights, nevertheless edged wins because of this.
The expectation, however, is that as the fight progresses, Lomachenko will seize the advantage by luring an aggressive Kambosos into traps whereby Lomachenko can punish him with accurately placed counterpunches.
Yet, Kambosos has surprised boxing fans before. He was a huge underdog in the fight against Lopez but was able to put the much larger man on the backfoot with consistent and intelligent pressure fighting. Against Lee Selby in 2020, he was similarly impressive, managing to beat an elusive opponent who presented challenges with slick footwork and a solid jab.
Legacy is at stake
Beyond fame, fortune, and riches, what most boxers dream of is cementing their legacy: a lasting place in the Boxing Hall of Fame. A win on the night of May 12, will be one more step on that journey for either Kambosos or Lomachenko.
“A win would put me back to the king of the lightweights,” commented Kambosos. “I was there not so long ago. Devin Haney was the last guy there, he’s vacated, so if we go back on history I’m one of the last one of the lightweights that was king.”
“It would push me back in that position. It puts me back to where I want to be, where I’m motivated to be,” Kambosos continued. “And I’m 30 years of age. My road continues, my opportunities for bigger fights with the guys like Gervonta Davis, Shakur Stevenson continues and that’s what I want, the biggest fights.”
“If I can’t get over a guy like Lomachenko then that opportunity really does not present itself anymore,” Kambosos added. “I know what’s at risk. I know what’s at stake for this kind of fight, but that is what is motivating me more and more.”
Kambosos is proud of his Greek heritage
Kambosos was born in Sydney, Australia to parents of Greek descent. His paternal grandparents moved from Sparta to Australia.
His tattoos are a testament to the pride he places in his Greek heritage. During boxing matches, the inked figures of Spartan warriors and scenes from the Iliad are visible on the boxer’s back.
Kambosos also counts the words, “Never retreat, never surrender” among his tattoos, a homage to the words spoken by Kind Leonidas in the movie 300. They are also an authentic reflection of Kambosos’ boxing career: win or lose, he has sought to fight the most feared names in his division.
Kambosos is proud of his Greek heritage, displayed on his many tattoos. Credit: George Kambosos Jr. / Instagram
Micromeria acropolitana is a delicate little flower that grows only on the slopes of the Acropolis. Credit: Twitter/Maria Dimitrakarakou
Found interspersed among the rocky terrain of the Acropolis of Athens is a small plant that features a delicate pink flower called the Micromeria acropolitana.
Measuring at just five to thirty centimeters (up to 12 inches) in height, it is easy to walk past this plant without even noticing it. Yet this modest flower, which is beloved by Greeks and botanists alike, has an interesting history.
This unassuming but lovely plant is completely unique, as it only grows on the Acropolis, the ancient hill of Athens, home to the Parthenon, which is the most iconic structure in the history of Western civilization.
Flower blooms in May throughout the Acropolis hill
The Micromeria acropolitana blooms every year from May until June, when its beautiful flowers emerge and dot the rocks of the Acropolis with notes of pink.
It is thought that the plant has lived on the ancient hill, which served as the center of ancient Athenian political, spiritual, and social life for centuries since time immemorial.
MicromeriaAcropolitana was first collected in 1906 from the Acropolis, Athens it was considered extinct until its rediscovery in 2006,. It has survived in its original habitat, the natural rock of the hill #Acropolis#Greece#ClimateMW#MuseumWeekpic.twitter.com/5kaPYC1h77
— Maria Dimitrakarakou (@dimitrakarakou) May 15, 2020
Discovery of the micromeria acropolitana on the Acropolis
The plant was discovered in the summer of 1906 by two French botanists, Rene C.J.E. Maire and Marcel G.C. Petitmengin, and was included in their work “In Acropoli Athenarum.”
The Micromeria acropolitana was first classified scientifically just two years later by Austrian botanist Eugen von Halacsy, who described it as “Micromeria athenae,” and later changed it to its current name, “Micromeria acropolitana” in his text “Conspectus Florae Graecae.”
Oddly, the plant appeared to go extinct soon after it was discovered, but it reemerged on the Acropolis in 2006, a hundred years after it was first found. It had been included in the Greek state’s official catalogue of protected plants, by order of a Presidential Decree, in 1981, during the period that it was thought to have been extinct.
The Greek biologist Grigoris Tsounis was the first to rediscover the supposedly extinct plant in 2006, with his son Lambros. The pair stumbled across a secluded area of the Acropolis where over two hundred of the plants were thriving. They returned to the spot for years to tend to the plants.
Three years later, in 2009, Danish biologist Dr. Kit Tan, professor at the University of Copenhagen, confirmed that the plants they had been taking care of were in fact the famed Micromeria acropolitana.
This confirmation meant that the unique plant was indeed not extinct but had been thriving in its natural ecosystem, the Acropolis of Athens.
The location where the plants thrive has remained secret so as not to disrupt the sensitive flora. While the plant can be found across the Acropolis, this hidden spot is where the threatened Micromeria acropolitana flourishes undisturbed.
Xanthippus was a Spartan general commissioned by the Carthaginians during their war against the Romans. Credit (Multiple Authors): Louvre Museum / Emilio Rubio Villanueva / CC BY-SA 4.0 / Elliott Sadourny / CC BY-SA 3.0 / Wikimedia Commons
Xanthippus was a mercenary Spartan general who was hired by Carthage to fight against invading Roman forces in the First Punic War.
According to Diodorus of Sicily, an ancient Greek historian of the 1st century BC known for writing the voluminous Bibliotheca Historica, the cause of the war was Carthage’s ambition to take over the Sicilian city-state of Messana and expand its control in the Mediterranean.
The Romans, on the other hand, did not view Carthage’s expansion plans favorably and so the ground for the First Punic War (264 – 241 BC) was laid.
Since the Carthaginians were mostly traders and very successful ones at that, their military prowess was centered around their navy rather than foot soldiers. Their only option to fight successfully against the Romans was to hire the best army possible. The Spartan general Xanthippus was the ideal man and arrived in Carthage with a band of Spartan mercenaries.
The rising of Carthage
Carthage, located in what is now Tunisia, was founded around 825 BC by Phoenician traders from Tyre—now Lebanon—who wanted to colonize the eastern Mediterranean. They aimed to control the lucrative trade in tin, gold, silver, and copper. Eventually, the Phoenicians established over three hundred coastal colonies throughout North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula (Hispania).
By the third century BC, Carthage had grown into one of the most powerful states in the Mediterranean, controlling much of North Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica, along with sections of Sicily and the Iberian Peninsula. The city was the second largest in the ancient Mediterranean, second only to Alexandria. With its powerful fleet, Carthage dominated trade throughout the Western Mediterranean and even into the Atlantic.
The Carthaginians were seafaring people, and they developed a superb naval force based on their innovative ship design. Their navy protected the western part of the Mediterranean, stretching from Sicily to the Atlantic coast of Africa.
The Romans perceived Carthage’s naval growth as a threat and decided to go to war with the North African city-state to thwart them. The result was the three Punic Wars between the Carthaginian Empire and the Roman Republic that began in 264 BC and lasted until 146 BC with the Romans being the final victors.
Xanthippus and his Spartan mercenaries
The Carthaginians were rulers of the Mediterranean Sea, but their land army was lacking. According to ancient Greek historian Polybius, in 255 BC, during the First Punic War, Spartan General Xanthippus was hired by Carthage for his experience.
Previously, the Carthaginians had sent recruiting agents to Greece to bring over soldiers experienced in land battles. At that time, Xanthippus, a Spartan general, had maintained that the Carthaginians’ defeat was the result of their commanders’ lack of skills rather than the actual superiority of the Romans.
Xanthippus was summoned by the generals and men in authority for questioning, and he explained his views to the magistrates. He asserted that if they considered his advice and implemented his ideas, they would be able to secure safety for themselves and defeat the Romans. His plans included keeping to the flat parts of the country and marching, camping, and battling in unison.
The Carthaginians determined they would stick to Xanthippus’ scheme and placed their forces at his command. The Spartan general generated an air of optimism among Carthaginian soldiers, and Xanthippus’ skills immediately became perceptible. This was confirmed by his actual handling of the troops.
The seasoned warrior led the soldiers outside the town and the skill with which he maneuvered the separate detachments and passed the word of command down the ranks in due conformity to the rules of tactics impressed everyone. This was in stark contrast to the clumsy ways of the former generals. The troops expressed their acceptance of Xanthippus with loud cheers and were ready for battle without delay, convinced that no harm could come to them as long as Xanthippus was their leader.
The Carthaginians defeat the Romans in Tunis
The generals took advantage of these circumstances and of the extraordinary change they witnessed in the morale of the army. Following exhortations befitting the occasion, they got their forces on foot after a few days’ delay. The army consisted of twelve thousand infantry, four thousand cavalry, and nearly a hundred elephants.
Polybius credits Xanthippus with the Carthaginian formation at the victorious Battle of Tunis, also known as the Battle of the Bagradas River. The Spartan general placed the citizen phalanx in the center of his formation, with the experienced mercenaries holding the right flank. He placed the elephants ahead of the phalanx and his cavalry on his wings, supported by additional mercenary infantry.
The Carthaginian army was able to use its numerical superiority to overwhelm the Romans and hit their flanks, forcing the Roman army into a disorderly retreat. The Romans were overwhelmed by the elephants, having no effective answer to their massive presence. The Carthaginian cavalry chased the outnumbered Roman cavalry from the field, surrounded most of the Romans, and slaughtered them. Only five hundred Romans survived and were captured, including their general, Regulus. About two thousand Romans avoided being surrounded and retreated to Aspis.
After defeating the Romans, Xanthippus left and returned to Greece, Polybius wrote. Diodorus, however, gives a different account of what happened to Xanthippus after the victorious Battle of Tunis. The Spartan general stopped in the city of Lilybaeum (now Marsala, Sicily), which was besieged by the Romans. He inspired the defending Carthaginians and led an attack, defeating the Romans yet again. Envious of Xanthippus’ success, the city betrayed him by giving him a defective ship, and he supposedly sank and drowned in the sea on his voyage home.
Author of this article at the temple of Isis (Philae Temple) in Aswan with Graeco-Roman connections. Image Credits: Mr. D. B. Goswami.
Across the Mediterranean from Greece on the continent of Africa is the region of Nubia, an area that covers parts of what is now Upper Egypt and Sudan. This is where, in the days of antiquity, Greek warriors marched as mercenaries of the pharaohs. It is also where one of the oldest Greek texts in the world was found at the temple of Ramses II at Abu Simbel. His wife, Nefertari, was a Nubian.
One of the earliest Greek texts was found at Abu Simbel Temples built by Pharaoh Ramses II. Image Credits: Mr. D. B. Goswami
On a tour of Egypt, one can explore Hellenic connections of several sites that are millennia old. One can travel from Cairo to Aswan, where Nubian heritage can be witnessed in a local village. There is also a museum devoted to Nubian culture in Aswan.
Philae
Temple of Isis at Philae. Image Credits: Mr. Arunansh B. Goswami.
Located in the city of Aswan, which is situated on the Nile, is the Philae temple dedicated to Egyptian deities Isis, her consort Osiris, and their son Horus. During antiquity, worship of Isis spread as far as Great Britain, then known to the Greeks and Romans as Britannia or Albion. In what is now London, there was even a temple of Isis.
The complex of structures of this temple was completed by Hellenic Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who reigned from 285 to 246 BCE, and his successor, Ptolemy III Euergetes, who reigned from 246 to 221 BCE. According to Egypt’s Ministry of Antiquities, “All these monuments were relocated from the original Philae island to the nearby island of Agilkia during the UNESCO Nubia Campaign in the 1960s to rescue sites flooded by the construction of the Aswan High Dam.”
According to Egypt’s Ministry of Antiquities, the Philae temple of Isis was one of the last ancient Egyptian temples to remain active, as it continued to function up until the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (527–565 AD), who eventually ordered the closure of all pagan temples.
Kiosk of Trajan at Philae. Image Credits: Mr. Arunansh B. Goswami.
The region has continued to be a source of historical interest throughout the centuries. For example, Napoleon’s Egyptian expedition reached Philae in 1799 and carved an inscription there that can still be read to this day.
Graeco-Roman monuments at Philae
Kiosk of Trajan at Philae Temple. Image Credits: Mr. Arunansh B. Goswami.
There are several monuments with Greek connections at Philae. These include a church, the Gate of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, and atemple of Imhotep. The latter was dedicated by Ptolemy V, possibly in gratitude for the birth of his son, Ptolemy VI.
Statue of Ptolemy XII in the Graeco-Roman Museum in Alexandria. Image Credits: Mr. Arunansh B. Goswami.
At the Philae site, one can also find the Temple of Hathor. This was built by Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII, while Augustus decorated the hall in honor of Isis and Hathor. Furthermore, the Temple of Arensnuphis was built by Ptolemy IV. Following the construction of that particular temple, Arkamani (Ergamenes) II, Ptolemy V, Ptolemy VI or VIII, and Tiberius enlarged and/or decorated it.
The obelisk of Philae contains an inscription with a reference to a petition by the Egyptian priests at Philae as well as the favorable response by Ptolemy VIII Euergetes, Cleopatra II, and Cleopatra III. The remains of the temple of Bigeh are the façade of a vestibule built under Ptolemy XIII, the father of the well-known Cleopatra.
Graeco-Roman inscriptions
A Nubian gentleman guarding the Temple of Nefertari at Abu Simbel. Image Credits: Arunansh B. Goswami.
André Bernand of the French National Council for Scientific Research and Abdullatif Ahmed Aly, a professor at Cairo University write about Nubia: “Here, on the confines of the Greek world, in these distant ‘marches’ of the Roman world, the mercenaries of King Psammetichus, of the Ptolemies, and of the Roman Emperors have left their imprint.”
Bernand and Aly write about these inscriptions, revealing that the region is rich in relics of the Graeco-Roman period with over 1,200 Greek inscriptions. As per the two scholars, among these are the decree of Aurelius Besario, the civil governor of the ancient Egyptian province of Ombos and Elephantine at Kalabsha.
The decree dates back to the latter part of the third century AD. At the request of the high priest Myro, it gave the people of Talmis, or present-day Kalabsha, fifteen days to clear the village of the swine polluting the temple. Moreover, the famous inscription of King Silko, also at Kalabsha, dates back to the Christian period. It commemorates the victories of the “king of the Nobatae and of all the Ethiopians” at Talmis and Tophis over the Blemmyes, an Eastern Desert people who had invaded his territory.
Expedition of Psammetichus II
Psammetichus II was none other than Psamtik II, the king of the 26th dynasty of ancient Egypt. At Abu Simbel, the longest text runs to no more than five lines and records the expedition led by the mercenaries of Psammetichus II in Upper Nubia.
Temple of Nefertari, the Nubian wife of Pharaoh Ramses II. Image Credits: Mr. D. B. Goswami.
However, the most striking and interesting inscriptions at Philae are a series of epigrams or inscriptions in verse. Five of these are at Talmis while two are at Pselhis. One of the inscriptions reads:
“Our journey has brought us to the beautiful and sacred island belonging to Isis, in furthermost Egypt, on the borders of Ethiopia (i.e. Nubia); on the Nile we can see swift vessels bringing (stones for) temples from Ethiopia to our country, a fertile granary, well repaying a visit and revered by all mortals.”
The story of Psammetichus’ expedition to Nubia is related on the leg of one of the colossal statues:
“The King Psammetichus came to Elephantine and those who accompanied Psammetichus, son of Theokles, and made their way upstream from Kerkis as far as the river was navigable had this inscription engraved.
The foreign legion was under the command of Potasimto, while the Egyptians were led by Amasis. This inscription was engraved by Arkhon, son of Amoibickhos, and Pelekos, son of Eudamos.”
Temple of Nefertari in Nubia. Image Credits: Mr. Arunansh B. Goswami.
Many Hellenes, in fact, assimilated to their adoptive countries and began worshipping local deities. This was the case both with Heliodorus who converted to Hinduism and the Ptolemies who were devoted to Egyptian deities such as Isis and Hathor.
For those who would like to visit temples with Greek influences outside Europe and Asia Minor, Egypt is indeed a favorable option. This is because Graeco-Roman monuments there are quite well preserved. In visiting Egypt, it certainly is worth going to Nubia, where several Graeco-Roman monuments continue to stand to this day.
Kitsos is proud of her Greek heritageCredit: Christina Kitsos/Facebook
Christina Kitsos, born to Greek parents in Geneva, Switzerland, is set to become the new mayor of the Swiss city.
Kitsos, who will assume office in June, has already made significant strides in politics, starting her journey at the age of 13 in the Youth Parliament and later joining the Socialist Party.
The office of the mayor of Geneva (maire de Genève) rotates annually among the five members of the administration council, the executive government of the city.
Kitsos’s ascent to the mayorship comes as a recognition of her dedication to public service and commitment to addressing key issues facing the city.
The Greek politician among supporters in Geneva. Credit: Christina Kitsos/Facebook
Kitsos on Greek heritage that shaped her worldview
In a recent interview on Greek public television ERT, Kitsos highlighted the importance of her Greek heritage in shaping her worldview and approach to governance.
“Sometimes we believe that there is equality, but there are many things that are not so obvious, but which will have a meaning in everyone’s journey,” she said.
One of Kitsos’s main priorities as mayor will be to tackle social issues such as housing for the homeless and support for young people.
She has already initiated an increase in wages for those working in daycare centers, a sector predominantly made up of women, addressing the gender pay gap.
Kitsos’s election has been met with praise and excitement from the Greek community in Geneva and beyond.
Her background and experiences uniquely position her to bridge the gap between Switzerland and Greece, bringing a fresh perspective to local governance.
In her closing remarks, Kitsos expressed her belief in the importance of understanding and embracing one’s cultural heritage, stating, “Through the values that Greece has always carried, we too can be inspired.”
Kitsos and her socialist convistions
Kitsos writes on her internet page: “My convictions for social justice, equality, for an open, sustainable and united society made me join the Socialist Party 16 years ago. It is in the name of these values that I was a Member of the Neuchâtel Grand Council at the age of 24.
“I then sat on the External Affairs Commissions, where priority was given to the international agreement on the harmonization of compulsory education (HarmoS concordat), and professional education at the Neuchâtel Music Conservatory.
“At the same time, I worked as a parliamentary assistant in Bern to my party colleague Didier Berberat, then National Councilor.”
Geneva is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous of the French-speaking Romandy.
Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva and a center for international diplomacy. Geneva hosts the highest number of international organizations in the world.
When the ancient Greeks faced the Persians in the Battle of Artemisium, they set the tone for the Battle of Salamis. Credit: wikimedia commons / Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany CC BY-SA 3.0
When the ancient Greeks faced the Persian navy in the Battle of Artemisium, they set the tone for the Battle of Salamis that drove the Persians out of Greece.
The significant naval battle at Cape Artemisium in 480 BC was overshadowed by the simultaneous heroic Battle of Thermopylae, yet it was equally important for the Greco-Persian War and the future of ancient Greece.
The newly established Greek naval force was to support the land battle at Thermopylae. At the same time, the Persian navy was invading Greece by sea.
The legendary stance of Leonidas and his three hundred brave men—who fell in Thermopylae while facing the massive army of King Xerxes—along with the Battle of Artemisium raised the morale of the ancient Greeks, who formed a united front, leading to the destruction of the Persian navy in Salamis a year later.
Battle Preparations
The first Persian invasion of Greece began in 492 BC under King Darius the Great. It ended with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. Following the first invasion, several Greek city-states agreed to set aside their differences and form an alliance. In the pivotal Congress of Corinth in 481 BC, they united against Persia.
King Xerxes, the son of Darius, ascended to the throne when his father died in 486 BC. He took it as his duty to continue his father’s mission to subjugate Greece. In 480 BC, the vast Persian army, led by King Xerxes, crossed the Hellespont and moved south to Greece.
Themistocles, the Athenian statesman and general, proposed the pass at Thermopylae as a viable option for blocking the progression of the Persian army. The pass was bordered to the south by steep mountain cliffs and to the north by a sloping beach. The shoreline was of particular importance, as it opened the Greeks up to being outflanked by the Persians who could land men on the beach.
Thus, to successfully block the Persians at Thermopylae, the Greek navy had to block the Strait of Artemisium. King Leonidas of Sparta, who was leading seven thousand Greeks, moved to block the pass at Thermopylae. Themistocles ordered the evacuation of Athens and sailed the Greek fleet to the northern point of Euboea at Cape Artemisium.
The Two Fleets
According to Greek historian Herodotus, the Persian fleet totaled 1,207 ships when they crossed the Hellespont. However, luckily for the Greeks, a huge storm that lasted for two days dashed the ships against the rocks, destroying about one third of them.
The historian also claims the Persians sent out two hundred ships around Euboea to block the southern entrance of the Euboean Gulf so as to deny the Greeks an escape route. This would leave around six hundred ships to take on the Greek fleet.
It is unclear how many Greek ships there were. According to Herodotus, there was a total of two hundred and eighty vessels with sixty of them arriving on the second day of the Battle of Artemisium.
Greek Trireme. Credit: Hellenic Navy
The Athenians contributed the bulk of the fleet with a hundred and twenty-seven ships. The Corinthians supplied forty of them. Despite only contributing ten vessels, the Spartans had overall command of the fleet. While Themistocles was respected for his battle acumen, command of the fleet was handed over to the Spartan, Eurybiades, in order to preserve Greek unity.
The Persian fleet was drawn from various regions within the Persian Empire, including Phoenicia, Syria, Egypt, Cyprus, Cilicia, Ionia, and Pontus. The Greek ships carried a little over four thousand marines, while the Persians had more than thirty-six thousand. Counting the skilled, professional oarsmen, the Greeks were around forty-six thousand, while the Persians totaled approximately two hundred thousand.
As the Persian fleet was seen approaching Artemisium, a huge storm that lasted for two days sent the ships smashing against the rocks. Approximately one-third of the Persian fleet was lost in the storm. After the winds had died down, the Greeks sailed north to meet the enemy.
Battle at Artemisium
The Persians, despite their sizeable losses to the storm, believed they would manage a quick victory. They had three times as many ships as the Greeks, and their crews were more experienced than the newly-built naval powers of the Greeks.
The formation employed by the Greeks for battle is a topic of debate, but the modern consensus is that they used a crescent formation to protect the flanks and negate the Persian tactic of diekplous.
Diekplous was a maneuver in which ships would sail directly between the enemy ships and then swing around to ram the enemy vessel on the stern. The Greek ships moved forward and attacked the Persians. The Greeks managed to capture or sink thirty Persian vessels. Then night fell, and the battle stopped to resume the next day.
On the second day, the Persian navy was still recovering from the storm, so they did not attack. The Greeks waited, uncertain of what the Persians had in mind, but luck was once again on the side of the Greek navy. While they waited to assess the Persians’ stance, fifty-three triremes with reinforcements arrived from Athens. In the afternoon, they caught and destroyed a few Cilician vessels while on patrol.
Third Day and Withdrawal
On the third and final day of the Battle of Artemisium, the Persians attacked the Greek navy. The allied forces tried to block the straits, but their ships were too few. The Persians attempted to envelop them, and the Greeks advanced to engage. After fierce fighting, both sides suffered immense casualties, losing roughly the same number of ships.
At the end of the day, the fighting came to an end, and both fleets assessed their situation. The Greeks inflicted heavy casualties on the Persians, but they had lost too many ships as well. When they received news that the Greek rearguard at Thermopylae had been annihilated, the allied fleet withdrew from Artemisium, as there was no reason to hold it.
The Greeks had lost the battle at Thermopylae, and the fleet withdrew from Artemisium. Yet, the newly-established allied navy earned valuable experience that would be invaluable in the Battle of Salamis that was to follow. Furthermore, with the help of the storm, the Persians lost around four hundred vessels, while the Greeks only lost a hundred.
More importantly, however, the battles at Thermopylae and Artemisium allowed the allied Greeks another opportunity to fight the Persians, and they did so victoriously in the Battle of Salamis.
