The Origin of the Etruscans: What Archaeological Evidence and Genetics Show

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etruscans
A detail from the sarcophagus known as “The sarcophagus of the Spouses,” one of the masterpieces of Etruscan art, now in the Louvre Museum. Credit: wikimedia commons / Ecelan CC BY-SA 2.5

The Etruscans were a relatively enigmatic people who lived in ancient Italy. They dominated the central region of Italy from about 700 BCE until the rise of Rome and the southern Greek city-states. Due to the difficulties in translating their inscriptions, there is considerable debate about their origin. What does the evidence really show about the origin of the Etruscans?

Ancient claims about the origin of the Etruscans

The ancient historian Herodotus was the first person to write about the origin of the Etruscans as far as surviving records are concerned. According to him, they originated from western Anatolia. In the era of the Trojan War, their original territory suffered a terrible famine.

As a result, half of the nation migrated to Italy to find a new home. They settled in Central Italy, forming Etruria. The vast majority of ancient historians accepted this basic origin for the Etruscans. However, there were some exceptions. One notable example is Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

Famously, this historian of the first century BCE argued against the Anatolian origin of the Etruscans. Instead, he argued that they were the native inhabitants of Italy.

Some modern sources also claim that certain other first-century BCE records attribute the origin of the Etruscans to the area north of Italy. However, this is untrue. Livy is the source for this idea. Yet, what he actually says is that the Etruscans migrated to that northern region after they had first settled in Central Italy. Therefore, there were only two opposing theories concerning the Etruscans’ origins in antiquity rather than three.

Archaeological evidence

One of the main reasons why Dionysius of Halicarnassus denied that the Etruscans had come from Anatolia is because he could not perceive any strong similarities between them and the nations that lived in Anatolia in his own time. Fortunately, historians today have the benefit of modern archaeology. This allows us to come to far more reliable conclusions.

As it happens, archaeology has revealed that the Etruscans entered a phase called the Orientalizing period around 700 BCE. At this time, we see a sudden influx of Anatolian elements arriving in Etruria. Archaeologist Jodi Magness explained it as such:

“Near Eastern influence is evident on almost all aspects of Etruscan life, including art, clothing, chariots, military equipment and warfare, hairstyles, dining habits, religion or cult, and technology.”

In view of the legend of the Etruscans having their origin in Anatolia, this is significant. It is true that the Greeks also went through their own Orientalizing period. However, it mostly took the form of gradually adopting some Near Eastern art styles. This is easily explained through trade.

In contrast, the Orientalizing period among the Etruscans affected almost every aspect of their society, and it was far more sudden in its conception. Attempting to explain this through trade is hardly convincing since the Greeks were geographically closer to Anatolia and had been trading with that region for longer.

Evidence from monumental tombs

Etruscan monumental tombs in Caere, Italy.
Etruscan monumental tombs in Caere, Italy. Credit: Wikimedia Commons, CC-BY-SA 3.0

How can we be sure whether or not the “Oriental inundation” among the Etruscans was really the result of a migration? In the absence of contemporary written sources, this is difficult to answer. However, one of the most secure methods of archaeologically establishing an actual migration is to look at burial customs.

Around 700 BCE, there was a general social upheaval in Etruria. This is when the first true Etruscan cities appeared. The same can be said regarding Etruscan sculpture. The Etruscans also adopted the Greek alphabet at this time. All of these show that some significant changes occurred around the year 700 BCE in Etruria.

However, for our purposes, the most interesting change was the sudden adoption of monumental tombs. These Etruscan tombs were evidently the resting places of the elite class. Fascinatingly, archaeologists have noted that these monumental tombs display some striking similarities to contemporary Phrygian and Lydian tombs.

For example, Etruscan tombs of this early period included benches, parapets, and headrests just like those found in Anatolia. Furthermore, they also contained a stone basement with decorations of circular rings similar to Lydian tombs. The Etruscans also had funerary statues which match those of ancient Anatolia.

The origin of the Etruscans according to genetics

From this evidence, it seems very likely that the elite class of Etruria from around 700 BCE onwards really did come from Anatolia. Logically, this is the origin of the legend recorded by Herodotus regarding the origin of the Etruscans.

However, what about common people? To what degree did the Etruscans as a whole come from Anatolia? Was it just the elite class, in the same vein as when the Normans invaded Britain, or was it a large migration in which a considerable portion of the Etruscan population came from Anatolia?

Genetic studies can help us answer that question. A landmark study of ancient DNA in 2021 revealed that a considerable portion of Etruscan DNA in the dataset could be attributed to Iron Age Southern European populations, such as those of Greece and Croatia in particular.

This genetic connection to the Balkans provides notable support to Herodotus’ report about the origin of the Etruscans. We have seen that archaeological evidence indicates this migration really occurred around 700 BCE rather than in the Bronze Age. As it happens, by that time, a number of Iron Age Southern European nations had already migrated to western Anatolia.

In particular, the Phrygians came from the Balkans. The Greeks, too, had extensively settled in western Anatolia by 700 BCE. Therefore, a migration from western Anatolia to Italy in 700 BCE would plausibly have included large numbers of Phrygians and Greeks. This theorized origin of the Etruscans is consistent with both genetic and archaeological evidence.

SYRIZA Headed For New Party Leadership Battle

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Srefanos Kasselakis Syriza
New leader of Syriza, Stefanos Kasselakis. Credit: Amna

Main Greek opposition party SYRIZA is likely headed for yet another leadership battle, five months after its members elected Stefanos Kasselakis as the new party leader.

The developments come after the party’s former chairman Alexis Tsipras, who served as Greek Prime Minister from 2015 to 2019, urged on Thursday his successor to seek a renewed vote of confidence from the party’s membership ahead of its congress, which started that day.

The former Prime Minister’s intervention was triggered by Kasselakis’ request to the party’s Political Secretariat on Wednesday for a three-year blank check which would allow him to retain the party leadership until the next national elections, regardless of the outcome of the European Parliament elections in June.

“I can neither remain silent, nor can I attend a congress that has been set up to ignore the critical problems in the name of false optimism,” Tsipras noted in his article-intervention.

SYRIZA party leader’s response to criticism

Kasselakis became the new SYRIZA leader after winning the second round ballot of the party elections over the former minister of Employment, Effie Achtsioglou, in September.

Achtsioglou and ten other MPs broke away from SYRIZA and formed the party New Left (Nea Aristera) following Kasselakis’ win in that leadership battle.

But internal critisicm for the newly elected party leader has continued, which forced Kasselakis to open the SYRIZA conference with a speech challenging those who doubted his leadership.

“I will not become a chairman under a deadline, find me an opponent and let’s go,” Kasselakis said in his keynote speech at the SYRIZA congress on Thursday evening.

Many delegates argued that this would negatively impact the party’s unity and new leadership vote should wait until after the European elections, AMNA observes.

So far, only Olga Gerovasili has reportedly expressed interest in becoming a candidate leader against Kasselakis, with behind-the-scenes support from Tsipras. The Arta-born politician is one of seven deputy parliamentary speakers and also served as minister and government spokesperson when SYRIZA was in power.

Her candidacy could be announced later on Saturday.

In any case, all potential candidates for SYRIZA’s leadership should have come forward by Sunday afternoon, when the congress will have been completed.

Kasselakis believes he could become Prime Minister

“Changes that need to be made” are to “match the party with society,” Kasselakis said in an interview to the radio station “Kokkino” on Friday after his speech at the 4th Congress of the party.

He also stated that he is “the last person stuck to his chair” and that he wants to “contribute to the country” from a position that will have the legitimization of the members and the base.

Kasselakis insisted that SYRIZA has the potential to “unite the whole progressive world, into a great progressive alliance” and called on the party’s voters to attend the open conference.

In a separate interview with Ta Nea newspaper, published on Saturday, Kasselakis appears convinced that he could become Prime Minister if he remains the party leader until the next national elections, but says that he would also “one thousand percent” stay in Greece and in the party even if he loses the upcoming party elections to another candidate.

The new SYRIZA leadership vote could take place by the end of March, the party’s deputy secretary Giorgos Vassiliadis told a current affairs show on Ant1 TV.

Gymnasium: The First Gym in Ancient Greece

ancient greek athletes diet olympians
The gymnasium (i.e. gym) in ancient Greece was an important institution, as exercising and keeping one’s body fit were vital in society. Credit: Marie Lan Nguyen/Wikimedia Commons/ CC BY-SA 2.5

The word “gymnasium” in ancient Greece, which also refers to the modern gym, was commonly used because exercise and maintaining a fit body were especially important for Greeks.

The word—which references a place for working out—derives from the Greek verb ‘gymnazo’ (γυμνάζω) meaning “I exercise” or “I work out.” It includes the noun ‘gymnos’ (γυμνός) meaning “naked”, as that was how ancient Greeks exercised.

Ancient Greece was a culture that highly prized fitness, strength, and physical beauty to an even higher degree than education at times. Greek citizens spent a great deal of time in the gymnasium. They would exercise or partake in athletic games to sculpt their bodies to the desired level.

Being strong and fit in the ancient world was socially crucial, as well. At a time when wars were commonplace, all men had the social responsibility to be ready and fit to fight at a moment’s notice.

Exercising was mandatory for males at quite a young age. It was a large part of their education. When they reached the age of eighteen, along with the training, they were taught warfare techniques.

Several gymnasiums were located just outside Athens’ city walls for young men who spent a considerable amount of time exercising there. Favorite sports included wrestling, javelin, discus throwing, and boxing.

Gymnasiums usually consisted of a large exercise yard surrounded by outhouses, such as changing rooms, practice rooms, and baths. Only men were allowed to enter a gym in ancient Greece.

Ancient Olympia Gym remains
The Gymnasium in Ancient Olympia. Credit: G Da / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0

The first gymnasium

The first record of a gym in ancient Greece is from sixth century BC Athens. Pausanias attributes it to Theseus. The operation of gyms is documented by legislation written by Solon, and there were later modifications on their management made in the time of Cleisthenes in the late sixth century.

Gymnasiums were established in other Greek cities, as well, with a prominent one being the gymnasium at Olympia.

Initially, gymnasiums were simple open spaces of packed earth surrounded by trees on the outskirts of the city. They had a supervisor called the gymnasiarch who was a public official and was responsible for the sports and games at public festivals as well as the supervision of  competitors.

The teachers and trainers were the gymnastai (plural of gymnastes). According to Aristotle, a gymnastes would train each person individually based on his body type and weight in order to achieve the greatest benefit for each individual.

Plato wrote that a gym trainer should combine wrestling with dancing to produce athletes with ideal strength and agility.

The gymnasiums were not only places to exercise and build the body but also to teach philosophy, literature, and music. Near gymnasiums, there were also public libraries. In Classical Athens, the gymnasiums resembled modern-day universities, where members could listen to lectures and speeches.

There was a gymnasium at the Academy of Plato and one in Aristotle’s Lyceum. It was important for ancient Greeks to cultivate the body along with the mind.

Festival contests in which young men competed were usually in honor of the gods and heroes, and victors represented their city-states. A great athlete elevated the city-state, and winners gained god-like status. Subsequently, the gymnasium that produced winners gained prominence, as well.

For this reason, training of competitors for notable contests was a serious matter of public concern, and special buildings were provided by city-states for such use. Also funded by city-states was the oil that athletes used to rub on their bodies.

Building good, healthy, moral citizens in the gym

The ancient Greek gym soon became an institution that was seen as a place for the growth of the city’s youth. Good health accompanied education, with gymnasiums evolving into schools that equipped young men of the city with the right moral and ethical virtues to guide them through life.

Furthermore, it was important to instill in young men a sense of patriotism so that they would become successful fighters who could protect their homelands in times of war. Ancient Greek gymnasiums not only produced good, healthy citizens but also great Olympic Games athletes, philosophers, poets, and doctors.

During the Hellenistic Period, gymnasiums became more highly standardized spaces both in architecture and operation. They persisted to be just as important in a young male’s physical and general education.

Gymnasiums were a common, indispensable, cultural feature across the Greek world, and they were later adopted and adapted by the Romans.

Τhe British Legend of King Arthur Conquering Greece

A fifteenth century depiction of King Arthur and his knights sitting at the Round Table
A fifteenth century depiction of King Arthur and his knights sitting at the Round Table. Credit: Public domain

According to legend, King Arthur was a powerful king ruling in Britain in the era just after the Romans left the island. One obscure tale speaks about the time when King Arthur conquered Greece. Is there any historical basis for this legend, and, if so, what is it?

King Arthur and the conquest of Greece

According to the medieval legends, Arthur was a king who ruled a powerful kingdom in Britain in the sixth century CE after the end of the Roman era. He led an alliance of kings and had numerous people in his service.

One legend related to his reign comes from a tale known as Culhwch and Olwen. In this tale, one of King Arthur’s men speaks with him and refers to the many adventures that they have had together. He mentions that he has been with Arthur in Europe, Africa, and the islands of Corsica (suggesting that Arthur engaged in conquests in those areas).

Then, there is a fascinating line in which he says that he was with Arthur when he “conquered Greece as far as the East.” Hence, according to this legend from medieval Britain, King Arthur conquered Greece. Is this just a complete fiction, or is there some historical basis for this tale?

Magnus Maximus and the conquest of Europe

Firstly, it should be noted that many scholars believe that King Arthur was a composite figure. That is, the legends of Arthur actually come from more than just one person. One of these must have been a war leader in sixth century Britain, since that is the core part of Arthur’s character in the legends.

However, it is perfectly possible that the legend of King Arthur conquering Greece comes from someone else entirely. Regarding another version of the legend that Arthur conquered parts of Europe, found in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae, British historian David Dumville observed that this seems to be taken from the historical activities of Magnus Maximus.

Magnus Maximus was a Roman figure in the fourth century CE. It is possible that he was the governor of Britain. In 383, his troops proclaimed him emperor. Maximus then invaded Gaul and conquered the Western Roman Empire.

Since at least one version of the legend of King Arthur’s European conquests evidently comes from tales of Magnus Maximus, it stands to reason that the similar tale in Culhwch and Olwen has the same origin.

King Arthur and the King of Greece

In support of this, the medieval British records reveal a legendary connection between Magnus Maximus and Greece. According to genealogical documents, such as the Harleian MS 3859, Maximus had a son named Anthun. This son appears in various other records as the head of an important dynasty in South Wales.

In these records, Anthun is referred to as the “king of Greece.” This is highly significant. Notice that the names Anthun and Arthur are extremely similar. Furthermore, Anthun and Arthur appear to be the only legendary kings of Britain in medieval British records who are also recorded as ruling over Greece.

It is improbable that this can be put down to coincidence. More likely, the tradition of being king of Greece was taken from one and accidentally applied to the other, due to the similarity between their names. The only question is, was it taken from Arthur and applied to Anthun, the son of Maximus, or was it the other way around?

The conquests of Andragathius

Thessaloniki, ancient Roman agora
Ancient Roman agora of Thessaloniki. Credit: Marco Verch / Flickr CC BY 2.0

Arthur was supposedly a king who ruled in Britain in the sixth century. There is absolutely no evidence that anyone from Britain conquered anywhere near Greece in that era. On the other hand, we know that Maximus engaged in vast conquests on the continent.

Therefore, the logical conclusion is that the tradition of his son Anthun ruling Greece is original to him. This was then evidently misattributed to King Arthur, rather than the other way around.

However, Magnus Maximus did not actually conquer as far as Greece. Yet, his cavalry commander, Andragathius, did conquer in that direction. He led Maximus’ armies as far as Siscia in Croatia in 388. At that time, almost all of the Balkan peninsula was in the administrative territory called the Prefecture of Illyricum.

The capital of this prefecture was Thessaloniki in Greece. Therefore, Andragathius did conquer at least part of the territory whose capital was Greece. With these facts in mind, it is very likely that this is the origin of the tradition of Magnus Maximus’ son conquering Greece.

How Andragathius became King Arthur

The name of Magnus Maximus’ legendary son, Anthun, is very probably a corruption of the first part of ‘Andragathius,’ the name of Maximus’ cavalry commander and the leader of Maximus’ armies. There are many examples in medieval British records of individuals being recorded by just the first part of their name.

The corruption of the name ‘Arddun’ to ‘Arthur’ is attested in the medieval records, and the proposed corruption of ‘Andr’ to ‘Anthun’ is no greater. This, therefore, appears to be the answer to the mystery of King Arthur conquering Greece.

It seems that this legend originates with the historical conquest of Magnus Maximus invading Europe. His cavalry commander, Andragathius, conquered as far as the Prefecture  of Illyricum, which was ruled from Greece. This evidently led to him being remembered as having conquered Greece.

In the medieval British records, his name came to be corrupted into ‘Anthun,’ extremely close to the name ‘Arthur.’ Under that name, he was recorded as the king of Greece. Finally, the tradition of his conquering Greece was then misattributed to King Arthur.

The Bee in Ancient Greece: A Symbol of Health and Healing

Depictions of the bee appear very early in the development of coinage in ancient Greece, with Ephesus, an ancient city in Ionia (Aegean coast of Turkey), having a particular claim to the tradition after it adopted the insect as its civic emblem.
Charon obol. Depictions of the bee appear very early in the development of coinage in ancient Greece, with Ephesus, an ancient city in Ionia (Aegean coast of Turkey) having a particular claim to the tradition after it adopted the insect as its civic emblem. Credit: CNG. CC BY-3.0/Wikimedia Commons/CNG

Depictions of the bee appear very early in the development of coinage in ancient Greece, with Ephesus, an ancient city in Ionia (Aegean coast of Asia Minor), having a particular claim to the tradition after it adopted the insect as its civic emblem. Bees were also depicted in jewelry and statues of goddesses in ancient Greece.

Centuries before people formed agrarian societies, relying on agriculture in settled communities, honey gathered from the hives of wild bees was valued as a precious substance. Being that the honeybee is native to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, domestication of this pollinator was crucial for the growth of many fruit crops in the region.

Such was the value of honey as a commodity that the Egyptian hieroglyph for ‘bee’ came to be used as the symbol for the ruler of Lower Egypt.

In ancient Greece, bees and honey were a significant symbol, often linked with knowledge, health, and power. The insects were even considered servants of the gods, with honey being worshipped for its healing attributes.

The goddess of the bees in ancient Greece was Melissa. According to Greek mythology, a nymph had revealed to her the use of honey by the bees themselves. She was one of the nymph nurses to Zeus when he was born to Rhea in a cave that was supposedly sacred to bees. There are two versions of the myth, one stating that the bees nurtured Zeus, with his son then nurtured by the Melissae (priestesses in the temples of the goddesses), and another saying that it was Zeus who was fed with the milk of goats and with honey by the Melissae.

The bee on the coinage of Ephesus in ancient Greece

The ancient Greek city of Ephesus was the location of a famous temple of Artemis, and the high priest of the temple was known as the “king bee.” There are nearly a thousand different known types of bee-and-stag coins from the city, and unpublished new types appear frequently. One of the earliest known examples is a rare electrum hemistater, dated to around 550 BC, which was sold for 25,000 dollars at a US auction in 2015.

Ephesos AR Drachm 550 BC.
Ephesos AR Drachm 550 BC. Credit: CNG. CC BY-2.5/Wikimedia Commons/CNG

Bees possess two pairs of wings, but typical representations of the insect in ancient times generally only showed one pair with the early exception of a silver obol of Ephesus from around 550 BC. It showed all four wings. Early in the classical era (480-450 BC), bees depicted on silver drachms from Ephesus were etched with curved wings and curly antennae, giving the insect a cartoon-like appearance.

By the fourth century BC in ancient Greece, Ephesian die-cutters, having advanced in their art, were engraving much more realistic bees, which included details like the sting, jointed legs, and the segmented abdomen.

Ephesos, 370-360 BC, silver tetradrachm, bee.
Ephesos, 370-360 BC, silver tetradrachm, bee. Credit: ArchaiOptix. CC BY-4.0/Wikimedia Commons/ArchaiOptix

Some of the coins, popular with collectors, are inscribed with the abbreviated name Ephesus (E-Φ) on one side, and on the other, alongside the stag, the name of the then-magistrate is spelled out.

In 356 BC, the Temple of Artemis was burned down. Several sources from the time claim this was the doing of Herostratus, who supposedly set fire to the wooden roof-beams, seeking fame at any cost and giving rise to the term “herostratic fame.” Over the following centuries, the structure was repeatedly demolished and rebuilt, and in the background, the city continued to issue civic coinage bearing the bee and stag until around 133 BC.

The bee begins to disappear from the coinage of Ephesus after the city became part of the Roman empire, a society in which the emperor appears on the coins, leaving no room for the insect.

Other Greek cities where the bee appeared

Several other cities in ancient Greece adopted the image of a bee for their coins, possibly signifying economic ties with Ephesus or the hosting of a local cult of Ephesian Artemis. The side angle of the bee, as seen in Egyptian hieroglyphs, is very rarely seen on ancient coins, but it does appear on a very small hemiobol from an unknown Ionian mint, along with a turtle on the reverse.

The insects also occasionally appeared as decorations on ancient coin-like items, or tokens, such as one gold disc which was not dated but sold in a 2007 US auction. One theory is that these disc objects have magic powers, and they were buried with the dead to pay Charon, the boatman who ferried souls to the afterlife.

Drachm of Ephesus, 330 B.C.
Drachm of Ephesus, 330 B.C. Credit: William S. Kimball & Company. CC BY 1.0/Public Domain/Met Museum

In around 202 BC, Ephesus forged an alliance with the Phoenician city of Arados (present day Arwad, a small island off the Syrian coast south of Tartus). Arados later marked this partnership by taking on the bee and stag design for its coinage, and the coins of Arados can be distinguished by the word Aradion, inscribed in Greek on one side. It is thought that this alliance lasted for some time.

A number of other towns in ancient Greece adopted the bee, too, such as Gentinos, a small town in the region of Troas (northwest Anatolia), which used a bee and palm tree on its fourth century BC bronze.

Praisos, an ancient city on the island of Crete, put a bee with a rose on the reverse of a rare silver hemidrachm around the fourth to third centuries BC, and another Cretan town, Elyros, had the image of an atypically detailed bee—particularly the veins on its wings—on its silver drachm around 300 to 270 BC. The relatively unknown town of Iulis on the present-day island of Kea also placed a bee on the reverse of its third century BC bronze coinage.

The beehive is surprisingly rare on ancient coins. The city of Deultum in Thrace (now Burgas on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria) depicted a beehive on one side of its rare local bronze coins, issued during the mid-third century.

Ancient Fossil Unveils ‘Dragon’ From 240 Million Years Ago

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Dinocephalosaurus orientalis Fossil Reveals 240 Million Year-Old ‘Dragon’.
Scientists have disclosed the extraordinary fossils of an ancient marine creature often identified as the “Chinese dragon.” Credit: National Museums Scotland

Researchers in China have unveiled the remarkable fossils of an ancient sea creature commonly known as the “Chinese dragon.”

This creature, known as Dinocephalosaurus orientalis, lived around 240 million years ago during the Triassic period. It had an incredibly long neck, which it used to surprise its prey in shallow waters.

Although bits and pieces of this species were discovered back in 2003 in limestone deposits in Southern China, it’s only now that scientists have managed to put together enough remains to reconstruct the full picture of this magnificent carnivore.

The Chinese dragon stretched out to about 16.8 feet (or 5 meters) in length, as reported by Live Science.

Chinese dragon had 32 separate vertebrae in neck

The researchers shared their latest findings in a study released on February 23rd in the journal Earth and Environmental Science: Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Nick Fraser, who oversees natural sciences at National Museums Scotland, remarked that this finding adds to the already strange and fascinating world of the Triassic period, which keeps surprising paleontologists. Its striking resemblance to the legendary Chinese Dragon is sure to capture the attention of people worldwide.

The fossil exposes remarkable features of the ancient sea dragon. One standout feature is its long neck, stretching almost 7.7 feet (2.3 meters) and comprising thirty-two separate vertebrae. This is quite a contrast to giraffes and humans, which have only seven neck vertebrae.

The dragon’s flexible, snake-like neck probably allowed it to stealthily approach its prey. It would use its flippered limbs to position itself before striking. Inside the belly of this sea monster, scientists have found preserved fish caught in its serrated teeth, as reported by Live Science.

The researchers emphasize that, while the sea creature may remind some of the Loch Ness Monster, it’s not closely related to the long-necked plesiosaurs that inspired the mythical creature’s fame.

“We hope that our future research will help us understand more about the evolution of this group of animals, and particularly how the elongate neck functioned,” said Stephan Spiekman, the lead author and a postdoctoral researcher at the Stuttgart State Museum of Natural History.

The Chinese dragon adapted to more open waters

The distinctive features in the appendicular skeleton and the paddle-shaped autopodia of Dinocephalosaurus orientalis suggest it adapted to more open waters compared to Tanystropheus hydroides, says the study.

Dinocephalosaurus orientalis and Tanystropheus sp. didn’t coexist in the eastern Tethys, based on where their fossils have been found. All Tanystropheus sp. discoveries so far are from the latest Ladinian or earliest Carnian sequences.

While the exact purpose of Dinocephalosaurus orientalis’ exceptionally long neck remains uncertain, it likely helped in catching fish. Evidence of fish found in the stomach contents of one specimen supports this notion, according to the study.

The Magical World of Wit and Wisdom of Ancient Greek Comedy

Ancient Greek theater masks carved in stone, displayed in a row.
AI depiction of Ancient Greek Theater Masks. Credit: Midjourney for the Greek Reporter

In the rich history of ancient Greek culture, comedy shines as a vibrant example of literature and theater that deeply shaped the world of art.

Originating from the joyous celebrations in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine, fertility, and festivity, ancient Greek comedy evolved into a significant art form. Comedy not only entertained the people but also provided a unique way for Greek society of the time to examine itself deeply.

The ancient Greek comedy’s rich heritage

The Greek comedy focused on satire, poking fun at political figures, the norms of the society, and even the gods themselves.

This came in direct contrast with the solemn themes associated with its dramatic counterpart, tragedy. This genre offered an opportunity to audiences for laughter and lightness. Nonetheless, its implications and insights were anything but superficial. When we dig deeper into ancient Greek comedy, we can find a sophisticated, dynamic form of storytelling, which remains profoundly relevant to this day, resonating with audiences around the world. 

The roots of ancient Greek comedy are deeply connected with the Dionysian festivals. These were vibrant celebrations dedicated to Dionysus, one of Greece’s most beloved gods. These widespread festivities were rich and extravagant, offering the fertile ground from which the earliest forms of Greek comedy came into existence.

Initially, the performances of comedy were improvised. They were also unstructured and part of a broader tradition that wanted people to enjoy themselves and mock each other. This was a fundamental part of the seasonal celebrations of Dionysus’ cult.

However, as Greek society continued to evolve, so too did its comedy. It soon transitioned through several distinct phases, starting from the Archaic to the Hellenistic periods.

From Archaic to Hellenistic: the evolution of Greek comedy

The Archaic phase saw the formalization of comedy as a distinct genre. The fundamental change was the introduction of structured competitions at major festivals like the Dionysia and Lenaia in Athens. This period was marked by what we now call the “Old Comedy.” This form was characterized by its completely unrestrained satire of public figures. The daring ridicule even extended to the gods, apart from obvious societal norms. It was clear that for a comedy to be good, it had to spare no one from its critical gaze.

Following the Old Comedy was the Middle Comedy. This phase marked a shift away from personal satire. This time, the Greek comedy turned its focus towards a broader criticism of societal trends and the general human condition. The themes of comedy plays became less political and more focused on the everyday life of the Greeks, with a clear focus on ordinary people.

Following on, the Hellenistic period was the time when the so-called “New Comedy” appeared. This stage further refined the genre, adding new elements to it.

New Comedy was marked by the works of playwrights like Menander. This type of comedy focused on romantic as well as purely domestic situations. The comedy writer employed characters in plots that revolved around love, everyday misunderstandings, and relations of the family.

The transition away from the political and social satire of the Old Comedy to the more personalized nature of the plays reflected the changing dynamics of Greek society. This was fundamental in comedy’s ability to survive over time, as it found a way of evolving and not becoming obsolete. It illustrated the genre’s ability to shape itself based on its audience’s preference and the socio-political climate of the times.

Relief sculpture of a playwright interacting with comic masks from Ancient Greece.
Roman, Republican, or Early Imperial Relief of a seated poet (Menander) with masks of New Comedy, 1st century BC. Credit: Princeton University Art Museum, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Unique structures and themes in Greek comedy

What made the ancient Greek comedy unique was primarily its unique structure. It incorporated elements such as the chorus, parabasis (a direct address to the audience by the chorus), and episodes of dialogue that moved the plot forward.

The chorus was often dressed in extravagant costumes and provided the necessary commentary for the play. It also sang songs and interacted with the characters of the play. This helped bridge the gap between performers and audience. Thus, the chorus, one could say, was the intermediate between the actors and people. 

On the other hand, the parabasis, a crucial component of Old Comedy, allowed the playwright to speak directly to the audience. It offered a direct satirical explanation of contemporary issues that were at the forefront of the minds of Greek society.

Now, of course, the themes of ancient Greek comedies were as varied as they were bold. They tackled everything from political satire to social rules and the common attributes of human nature. Politicians and their policies were frequent targets of the comedies. They provided a platform for serious political critique, served under the guise of humor.

Furthermore, social commentary was another important element of these plays. From the role of women in society to the eternal battle between the wealthy and the poor and the wisdom of the gods, they covered a wide spectrum of topics central to everyone’s lives. This blend of sharp wit, good-old satire, and societal critique ensured that comedy was not only entertaining but also thought-provoking.

Engraved illustration of a scene from Aristophanes' play "The Birds" featuring costumed characters on stage.
A scene from Aristophanes’ “The Birds,” by Henry Gillard Glindoni (1852— 1913). Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Welcome Images CC BY 4.0

Aristophanes and Menander, the pioneers of the Greek comedy

Aristophanes and Menander, of course, stand out as the big titans of the ancient Greek comedy. Each one of them left an indelible mark on the genre for the coming generations to admire. Aristophanes was the master of the Old Comedy. He is best known for his sharp political satire and very imaginative plots around complex issues.

His works, such as Lysistrata and The Clouds, entertained but also provided critical ways of thinking on Athens’ political landscape. These included hot topics such as war, and social issues related to work, trade, and even love. Through his plays, Aristophanes brilliantly demonstrated the power of comedy to challenge any type of authority whilst provoking thought. All these were always served in a beautiful and laughing manner.

Menander, on the other hand, was a crucial figure in the development of New Comedy. His plays, such as Dyskolos (The Grouch), shifted their focus from societal issues to the intricacies of human relationships and personal dilemmas. The comedies of Menander played a crucial role in the future of drama, too. They were characterized by complex characters, intricate plots, and positive moral lessons. All these laid the groundwork for the romantic and situational comedy that would influence Western literature in centuries to come.

Ancient Greek theater
Ancient theatre of Epidaurus. Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Carole Raddato, CC-BY-SA-2.0

The role of festivals in ancient Greek comedy performances

Clearly, comedy in ancient Greece was not just a form of entertainment. It was a key element of religious and cultural festivities, notably the Dionysia and Lenaia festivals. These religious and cultural events provided a venue for dramatic competitions, with playwrights presenting their works to be judged by the public. The performances of these plays were considered to be significant events by many in ancient Greece. This is why, quite often, people used elaborate costumes and masks that exaggerated facial features. 

The competitive nature of these festivals also promoted innovation and excellence in performances. This explains why playwrights tried their best to gain the favor of the audience and the accolades that came with potential success. Additionally, the use of masks allowed actors to portray multiple characters and genders, offering much-needed flexibility to the producers. This also helped the plots, adding a layer of versatility and anonymity to the performance. 

How ancient Greek comedy shaped modern theater

The legacy of ancient Greek comedy is far-reaching and extends far beyond its historical period. It has profoundly influenced the development of modern theater and shaped Western societies deeply.

The structural elements, such as the use of a chorus, direct audience address, and the blending of satire and serious critique, have managed to find their way into the modern theater we all know today. The comedies we enjoy, from Shakespeare’s plays to television sitcoms, owe a huge debt to the groundbreaking innovations of the ancient Greek comedy.

The timeless topics of love, friendship, political satire, and family affairs, introduced by playwrights like Aristophanes and Menander, continue to resonate with us all to this day. They clearly show the universality of human life across the ages and cultures. 

The lasting influence of Greek comedy

To conclude, we need to admit that Greek comedy, with its rich combination of satire, humor, and thoughtful insight, remains a cornerstone of Western theatrical tradition. By exploring its origins, we understand the importance of its existence.

As we enjoy our next comedy in a theater or from the comfort of our living room, let’s not forget the influence of ancient Greek traditions on today’s theatrical expression.

The Top 10 Countries Dominating Global Gold Reserves

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gold reserve
Gold continues to be an important indicator and store of value in the modern era, and these are the countries with the largest reserves of it. Credit: Flickr / Bank of England CC-BY-ND 2.0 DEED

Gold continues to be an important indicator and store of value in the modern era, serving as a hedge and retaining its value even during times of economic crisis. With that in mind, here are the top 10 countries by gold reserves as of September 2023, based on data from central banks, the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the World Gold Council.

Gold hit a new record in December of last year during challenging times. There was uncertainty both geopolitically and regarding interest rates, proving once again that the metal is extremely important in the global economic context.

The majority of the world’s gold is stored in several places, including central bank vaults, private depositories, and jewelry holdings. Nations around the world hold gold reserves for a number of reasons.

Firstly, gold is a stable and dependable store of value, signaling a country’s economic stability, particularly in times of financial uncertainty. Secondly, despite the gold standard having lost some relevance, a few countries still regard gold reserves as crucial for maintaining currency stability. Furthermore, gold’s tangibility allows nations to diversify their overall portfolio. Almost one-fifth of all the gold ever mined is currently held in storage by central banks.

Top 10 countries with largest gold reserves

At the top of the list of countries with the largest gold reserves is the US, which has 8,133 tons stored away in twelve federal reserve banks across the county.

 

In second place is Germany, with 3,353 tons in its gold reserves, followed by Italy, which has holdings of 2,452 tons. France has taken the fourth spot with 2,437 tons, and Russia is fifth with 2,333 tons. China has the sixth largest gold reserves with 2,192 tons while Switzerland possesses 1,040 tons of gold and the seventh largest gold reserves in the world.

With 847 tons, Japan has the eighth largest gold reserves, while India, with its 801 tons places ninth. The Netherlands has 612 tons, meaning it is tenth among the top 10 countries with the largest gold reserves. Turkey has 479 tons, putting it in eleventh place.

Experts often discuss the concept of “peak gold,” which refers to the time period within a given year when humans are said to have mined the greatest possible amount of gold ever. Some believe that point may have already been reached. Gold mine production totaled 3,531 tons in 2019, which was one percent lower than in 2018, according to the World Gold Council. This represents the first annual decline since 2008.

“While the growth in mine supply may slow or decline slightly in the coming years, as existing reserves are exhausted, and new major discoveries become increasingly rare, suggesting that production has peaked may still be a little premature,” Hannah Brandstaetter, a spokesperson for the World Gold Council, told the BBC in 2020.

Germany Legalizes Recreational Cannabis Use

Germany's parliament has backed a law which permits the recreational smoking of cannabis in the country.
Germany’s parliament has backed a law which permits the recreational smoking of cannabis in the country. Credit: ubiquit23. CC BY-2.0/flickr

Germany’s parliament has backed a new law permitting the recreational use of cannabis for over-18s in the country, who will be allowed to possess substantial amounts of the drug despite strict rules which will make it challenging to buy.

On April 1 in Germany, smoking cannabis in many public spaces will become legal, with possession of up to 25g, equivalent to several strong joints, permitted in public spaces, and 50g permitted in private homes.

Allegedly, police in some areas of Germany, like Berlin, already turn a blind eye to smoking in public, despite possession of the drug for recreational use being illegal and grounds for prosecution. Use of cannabis by young people has been on the rise for years despite the existing law, said Health Minister Karl Lauterbach, who is instigating the reforms – as reported by BBC.

He is determined to undermine the black market, protect smokers from contaminated cannabis and destroy revenue streams for organized crime gangs. However, legal cannabis cafes will not suddenly start appearing all over the country.

The Cannabis Decriminalisation Debate in Germany

A debate around the decriminalisation of cannabis has been ongoing for years in Germany, with doctors’ groups sharing concerns for young people and conservative politicians stating that a liberalisation law will fuel drug use.

Following a ferocious debate today (Friday, February 23) in the Bundestag, Germany’s parliament, the decision was eventually passed by 407 votes to 226. There were four abstentions.

Simone Borchardt of the opposition conservative CDU told MPs that the government had gone ahead with its “completely unnecessary, confused law” despite the warnings from doctors, police and psychotherapists. However, Lauterbach claimed the present situation was no longer deniable, saying “The number of consumers aged betwen 18 and 25 has doubled in the past 10 years.”

After the decision had been taken in parliament, he said the law would “dry out the black market” and fix “a failed drug policy.” The law that has been approved in Germany is complex, with smoking cannabis in some areas, such as near schools and sports grounds, still illegal. Also of significance is that the market will be strictly regulated so buying cannabis will not be easy.

Initial plans to permit licensed shops and pharmacies to sell the drug have been thrown out due to EU concerns that this approach may lead to a surge in exports. Instead, non-commercial members’ clubs, called ‘cannabis social clubs’, will grow and distribute a limited amount of the drug.

Each club will have an upper limit of 500 members, smoking cannabis on site will be prohibited, and membership will only be available to German residents.
Growing cannabis will also be allowed, with a maximum of three marijuana plants permitted per household. Which means Germany will be allowing the possession of substantial amounts of the drug, while simultaneously making it hard to purchase.

The Greek City That Was the Ceramic Center of the Ancient World

Ancient Greek Klazomenai
Klazomenai was the ceramic center of the Ancient Greek world. The decorations on the works produced mainly depicted groups of fighting animals, chimaerai and battle scenes and were usually oriented towards the ideals of the nobility. Credit: Dosseman / CC-BY-SA-4.0 / Wikimedia Commons

The Greek city of Klazomenai located near today’s Izmir (Smyrna) was the center of ceramic production in the ancient world.

Unique Ancient Greek ceramic figures along with a 2,500-year-old type of water-basin used for rituals have recently been discovered during excavations.

According to the excavation’s director Professor Yasar Ersoy, “The excavations unearthed a sink foot and its base decorated with fantastic mythological creatures and chariot races. This sixth-century B.C. artifact is about 2,500 years old. It is decorated with figures, embossed and painted in this way. It is the first of its kind.”

Klazomenai is located in modern Urla on the western coast of Anatolia and on the southern coast of the Gulf of İzmir about twenty miles west of İzmir.

The city was originally located on the mainland at Limantepe but probably relocated to the Karantina island just off the coast during the early fifth-century BC Ionian Revolt from the Persians.

Soon afterward, the Greek city of Chyton was founded on the mainland in the late fifth century BC. Both Greek cities had conflictual relations, but Alexander the Great eventually connected Karantina island to the mainland with a causeway, the remains of which are still visible.

An important Ancient Greek ceramic production center

The Klazomenai olive oil workshop, which is one of the earliest Ancient Greek workshops in the Aegean region that has survived thus far, exemplifies the existence of mass production in ancient times. It is dated to the sixth century B.C.

Klazomenai
The Klazomenai olive oil workshop is one of the earliest workshops in the Aegean region that has survived thus far. Credit: Public Domain/Wikimedia Commons

Ersoy added that “Klazomenai is considered to be one of the most important ceramic production centers in the region, especially in the Archaic period in the sixth century B.C.”

“In the excavations carried out here, we also find many…ceramics produced in workshops connected with the city,” Ersoy said.

“The sink we found is decorated with fantastic mythological creatures and chariot races. This artifact, which dates to the sixth century B.C., is about 2,500 years old. We do not know of an example embossed and painted like this sink.”

“At the same time, another type of vase, which is identified with Klazomenai, is a commercial amphorae,” Ersoy further added.

“Olive oil or wine used to be stored and carried in these amphorae. We see vases of this type in many places in a wide geography, mostly on the northern, eastern, and western coasts of the Black Sea and in the Western Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean. This shows us the dominant commercial activity of the city from the seventh century B.C. to the beginning of the sixth century B.C.”

Klazomenai in ancient times

Researchers generally trace the establishment of Klazomenai between the 11th and the 7th century BC. However, according to the most recent archaeological data, the Greek presence in Klazomenai goes back to the Late Bronze Age.

Recent archaeological excavations in the settlement have discovered an abundance of artifacts of the Late Bronze Age, as well as Mycenaean shells and Aeolian “bucchero” vessels, while there are also traces of the Protogeometric (10th century BC), in the southern part of the settlement. Many of these findings are houses at the Museum of Acropolis.

Accounts of the founding of the city are confusing. According to Strabo, the founder was Paralos, while Pausanias mentions Colophonius Parforos as an inhabitant.

Aelianos, on the contrary, considers the city to have been built by Niles, the son of the Athenian king Kodros.

Pausanias mentions that the original population of the city was mainly Peloponnesians from Kleones and Fleiunda, who fled after the descent of the Dorians and arrived at Klazomenai, having previously failed to establish themselves at the foot of Mount Ida.

The ancient Greek city was originally located near Limantepe, but the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachment of the Persians, moved to the Karantina island of the bay and settled down there.

During the 6th century, Klazomenai was attacked by the King Alyattes of Lydia. In the 5th century, the town was for some time subject to the Athenians but about halfway through the Peloponnesian War (412 BC), it revolted.

After a brief resistance, however, it again acknowledged Athenian supremacy and repelled a Lacedaemonian attack. In 387 BC, Klazomenai and other cities in Asia were taken over by Persia, but the city continued to issue its own coins.

Klazomenai
Ancient coins of Klazomenai. Credit: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. / CC BY-SA 3.0 / Wikimedia Commons

Many notable ancient figures originated from Klazomenai. The philosopher Anaxagoras (c. 510 to 428 BC), often referred to as “Anaxagoras of Klazomenai,” was born in the city, as was the earlier philosopher Hermotimus of Klazomenai.

In addition, Herodotos of Klazomenai was the first Klazomenian Olympic winner, his victory being in the boys’ foot-race. Finally, Scopelian or Skopelianos of Klazomenai was an ancient Greek sophist.