El Castillo, part of the Chavín de Huántar, where archaeologists have discovered an entrance to an ancient Temple in Peru ‘frozen in time.’ Credit: Martin St-Amant / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 3.0
In Peru, a team of archaeologists have made a new discovery. They have found a sealed corridor that is over 3,000 years old.
This corridor, known as “the condor’s passageway,” is believed to lead to other chambers within a huge temple complex that was once part of the ancient Chavin culture.
The Chavin de Huantar archaeological site is situated approximately 190 miles (306 km) northeast of Lima. It was a significant hub for the Chavin culture, flourishing from about 1,500 to 550 BC, reported Reuters.
The Chavin civilization is famous for its impressive artwork, which often showcases birds and felines. These ancient people lived in the northern highlands of the Peruvian Andes long before the powerful Inca Empire emerged, going back more than 2,000 years.
Recently, archaeologists have been concentrating on a hallway within the southern section of the temple.
This particular area had been sealed off because it was deemed structurally weak. However, the recent discovery provides valuable insights into the early stages of the Chavin civilization.
Entrance to an ancient temple in Peru ‘Frozen in Time’
Archaeologist John Rick shares that the discoveries made here have been ‘frozen in time,’ reported Reuters.
Inside the passageway, the team uncovered a significant artifact: a large ceramic piece weighing approximately 37 pounds (17 kg).
It is adorned with what appears to be the head and wings of a condor. Additionally, a ceramic bowl was also found. These items were unearthed in May 2022 when the entrance to the passageway was revealed.
In ancient Andean cultures, the condor held great significance. Being one of the largest birds in the world, it was associated with power and prosperity.
The temple complex includes terraces and a network of passageways, which have recently come to light.
John Rick, an archaeologist from Stanford University, has mentioned that a significant portion of the temple complex is still awaiting excavation.
To explore the entrance of the “condor’s passageway,” Rick’s team utilized robot-mounted cameras. This method allowed them to navigate the debris that had filled the passage over time while minimizing the risk of causing further damage to the ancient architecture.
Chavin de Huantar was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1985. This designation was made by the United Nations’ educational, scientific, and cultural organizations.
Early religious practices in ‘Chavin de Huantar’
Archaeologists are engaged in ongoing discussions regarding the religious practices that were likely carried out during the peak period of Chavín de Huántar.
In the 1970s, Peruvian archaeologist Luis Lumbreras visited the site and had the opportunity to gather oral histories from the local people.
According to their beliefs, the word “Chavín” is derived from the Quechua term “chaupin,” which means “center,” emphasizing its importance to the indigenous communities of that time.
After conducting investigations at the site, Lumbreras proposed a theory suggesting that the elites within these communities may have been responsible for developing the rituals practiced at the temple.
He also postulated that they might have encouraged their followers to visit the temple as a means of upholding their political and social structure.
Nasa’s perseverance Mars rover captured an image of the floor of Jezero crater. Credit: NASA
NASA’s Perseverance rover has made a significant discovery in Mars’ Jezero Crater. It has found a variety of organic matter, which consists mainly of carbon and hydrogen, along with other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
Organic molecules are crucial for life as we know it on Earth. This groundbreaking finding, published in the journal Nature, holds significant implications for the ongoing search for potential signs of life on the Red Planet, as stated by the researchers.
Presence of organic molecules on the Red Planet
Scientists have already identified various types of organic molecules in Martian meteorites found on Earth, as well as in the Gale crater on Mars itself. However, researchers have been unable to definitively determine whether these materials originated from life forms (“biotic” origin) or if they have non-biological origins.
They have put forward several explanations for the presence of organic matter on the Red Planet, considering other possibilities for its formation. The search for the true origin of these organic molecules continues to be an active area of investigation.
Scientists propose that the formation of these organic molecules on Mars could be attributed to the interactions between water and dust, or they might have been delivered to the planet through dust particles or meteor impacts.
The researchers note that these organic molecules are primarily associated with minerals that are connected to water-related processes. This observation suggests that aqueous processes on Mars may have played a crucial role in the synthesis, transportation, or preservation of these potential organic compounds.
Hypotheses about the origin of organic matter on Red Planet
According to Dr. Sunanda Sharma from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, there are several hypotheses regarding the origin of organic matter on Mars based on meteorite studies and data from missions.
The rover’s instrument called Sherloc (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals) observed 10 different targets on the floor of the Jezero crater, and signals of organic molecules were detected in all of them.
Sherloc is the first tool capable of fine-scale mapping and analysis of organic molecules and minerals on Mars. This technological advancement allows for a more detailed understanding of the distribution and characteristics of organic compounds on the planet.
One thing I’m #SamplingMars for is organic molecules, the “building blocks” of life. The rock I got these two samples from has signals suggesting they may be present. Signs of biology, or another process, maybe? Hear why scientists would love to study sample #6 or #7 up close: pic.twitter.com/cQheyDqybd
— NASA's Perseverance Mars Rover (@NASAPersevere) July 12, 2023
Ashley E Murphy, a researcher at the Planetary Science Institute and co-author of the study, emphasized, “Not all organics are biological in origin. Observing spatial relationships between minerals and organics is necessary when evaluating organic origins and potential biosignatures.”
She further said, “Everything we know of life on Earth is limited to what is preserved in the rock-mineral record. On Earth, biosignatures are found in certain minerals and some minerals are better at preserving organics than others.”
In a separate discovery last year, NASA’s Curiosity rover found rocks on Mars that contained organic carbon, suggesting the possibility that ancient microorganisms might have inhabited the planet.
Interior view of the Masonic Hall in Athens. Credit: Grand Lodge of Greece
On Thursday morning, an explosion damaged a hall used by the Freemasons in Greece. The Masonic Hall, located in Central Athens, was only minimally damaged.
The blast was reportedly caused by an improvised explosive device (IED). The bomb detonated after police arrived on the scene but no one was injured in the ensuing fire.
The Freemasons have had a presence in Greece since the late 18th century before the country gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It is not yet known who the perpetrator is or why they specifically targeted the Masonic Hall in Athens.
Bomb detonated at Masonic Hall in Athens
According to the police, a call was received at 6:30 a.m. from an unidentified individual who reported the placement of a bomb at Acharnon Street The address corresponds to the Athens Masonic Hall. However, no specific time for the explosion was mentioned.
State-run broadcaster ERT reported that residents in the vicinity, who were alarmed by the initial explosion, promptly contacted the police and described experiencing a discernible shockwave. As a result, Acharnon Avenue was temporarily closed, leading to significant traffic congestion in adjacent streets.
Upon arrival, the officers established a perimeter and secured a section of the street. Shortly thereafter, the device detonated, resulting in a minor fire outside the building. Fortunately, no injuries were reported. A bomb disposal unit subsequently discovered a second device within the premises, which was safely neutralized through a controlled explosion.
“The explosion took place, which was very strong. I told the police what he was wearing and everything. I turned and as soon as I reached the corner the explosion happened and this person ran here and started shouting,” an eyewitness told ERT.
The IED that detonated consisted of a small LPG bottle, an old mobile phone, batteries, and cables. Adjacent to it, a paper box was discovered containing a second mechanism.
The Freemasons in Greece
The Freemasons have had a presence in Greece since the late 18th century. According to the official website of the Grand Lodge of Greece, “Freemasonry has been practiced by its members by promoting Virtue, Morality, and Justice; cardinal values we should all abide by throughout our lives.”
The first Masonic Lodge in Greece was established in 1782 in Corfu, which was under Venetian rule at the time. Known as “Beneficenza,” this lodge operated under the guidance of the Grand Lodge of Verona in Padova, Italy. Concurrently, Greek diaspora members began establishing lodges both in Greece and abroad.
A significant development occurred in 1810 when Dionisios Romas united the “Agathoergia” and “Philogeneia” Lodges, forming the first Grand Lodge in the Greek vicinity. This newly established organization was called the “Serene Grand Orient of Greece, in the Orient of Corfu” in 1811, and marked a significant milestone in Greek Freemasonry.
According to the website, “Freemasonry is a peculiar system of morality, veiled in allegory, and illustrated by symbols. A universal progressive, and philosophical institution promoting philanthropy and aiming toward a higher sense of ethos among its members.”
The Freemasons have long been associated with secrecy and various mysteries and conspiracy theories. Conversely, the organization insists that “Freemasonry is not a secret society, however our Lodge meetings are merely private, members-only meetings, similar to meetings of other clubs, such as gentlemen’s clubs, or sports-clubs.”
In the large urban centers and especially in Athens, levels above 40C are expected. Credit: AMNA
Greece’s state mechanism has been placed on high alert to deal with a heatwave dubbed Kleon which is expected to push temperatures up to 43C (109F) in some parts of the country starting Thursday.
The state apparatus is fully prepared, with more equipment and personnel at the disposal of civil defense services to deal with any needs arising as a result of the current heatwave, government spokesperson Pavlos Marinakis said on Thursday, during the daily press briefing.
The Health Ministry has put all public hospitals on standby while an emergency meeting was held on Tuesday at the Ministry of Civil Protection with the participation of all relevant agencies to update existing strategies to deal with the phenomenon.
On Wednesday, high temperatures will prevail mainly in central Greece and the southern mainland, with the maximum heat reaching up to 40 degrees Celsius.
On Thursday the heat will spread to almost the entire country, with the temperature in Central Macedonia and the interior of Epirus reaching 40C, while it will climb to up to 41C in central Greece.
Heatwave in Greece to peak on Friday
The heat wave will peak on Friday with the most difficult conditions in the interior of central Greece at 41-42C and in the interior of Thessaly at 43C.
In the large urban centers and especially in Attica, levels above 40C are also expected.
Similar conditions can be expected on Saturday, with a slight dip on Sunday, before temperatures climb again on Monday.
The Culture Ministry is considering the possibility of interrupting the opening hours of certain archaeological sites. It said it would boost shade and hand out free water at the Acropolis, which is visited by approximately 17,000 people per day.
Changes to the operating hours of public and private sector services are also under consideration, with an emphasis on limiting unnecessary travel.
The Health Ministry has noted that the elderly, infants and young children, pregnant and breastfeeding women, people who are overweight or obese, as well as people who work or exercise intensively in hot environments are at greatest risk.
Precautions are also advised for people with chronic illnesses (cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, lung disease, kidney disease, liver disease, mental illness, dementia, alcoholism or drug abuse etc) and patients suffering from other medical conditions.
the roof garden and the swimming pool of the hotel have unobstructed views of the Acropolis. Credit: Coco-Mat Athens
According to a ruling by Greece’s highest court, a hotel in the center of Athens has three months to tear down its two top floors that are obstructing the view of the Acropolis.
Coco-Mat Athens BC, located in the Koukaki area at the foot of the Acropolis, has been ordered by the Council of State to conduct pertinent investigations and go through with the destruction of the building’s final two floors within the next three months.
The Tourism Ministry has also revoked the license for the hotel until it carries out the court order.
Ble Kedros, the real estate company that owns the building has announced it will appeal against the court ruling and the Tourism Ministry decision.
Hotel blocked the view of Acropolis
The hotel — whose “breathtaking terrace” had been its selling point — opened its doors in 2019. Citizens enraged about the ten-story establishment blocking their own views of the citadel took the case to the highest court in the land.
Greece has set height restrictions in place for buildings near the Acropolis in Athens, Greece. The specific regulations and restrictions are implemented to preserve the historical and aesthetic significance of the Acropolis and its surrounding area.
The intention is to protect the view of the Acropolis and ensure that modern buildings do not overshadow or detract from its visual prominence.
The hotel was one of two developments that infuriated neighbors in February 2019 after going above the zone’s 24-meter building height restriction by 12.5 meters.
Greece’s highest court, the Council of State, has since adjudicated that in future, structures in the area must be 21 meters or less. The judgment came after the court revoked building permission for an even larger hotel due to go up in the area, with three underground parking lots and a pool garden on top.
Locals also claimed that the structure was situated near the Acropolis’ historic region, a renowned UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The 2019 public outcry spurred the relevant ministries to look into any zoning code loopholes that would permit such actions. “When the Acropolis is harmed, in essence, our civilization is harmed too,” Lina Mendoni, the Greek culture minister said at the time. “The Acropolis is a symbol. It is not simply a monument.”
Since then the City Planning of Athens imposed two fines on Ble Kedros for the hotel. The first amounting to 4.7 million euros concerns the construction of the top floors of the hotel and the second amounting to 2.3 million euros for delays in demolition.
The latter is expected to be reimposed for each year that the illegal constructions are not demolished.
The ancient Greek mosaic discovered in Hayat, Turkey. Credit: Archaeology and Art/Twitter
A magnificent ancient Greek mosaic discovered in Hatay, Turkey continues to amaze archaeologists and historians attempting to ascertain the exact meaning of its images and inscriptions.
The floor mosaic, which was found in the Hatay Province, located on the Turkish-Syrian border, is divided into three parts, with two images complete and in nearly perfect condition. The third section has mostly been destroyed, but its meaning has, nevertheless, been deciphered by archaeologists and historians.
The mosaic, which is likely from the 3rd century BC, is believed to have served as an elaborate centerpiece of a floor located in the dining room of a wealthy man’s home.
Ancient Greek mosaic found in Turkey puzzles archaeologists
The image that is by far the most controversial among experts is the first from the left, which shows a skeleton (pictured above) lying down and enjoying a pitcher of wine and a loaf of bread beside him. Above him, the Ancient Greek text reads: “Be cheerful, enjoy your life” (“ΕΥΦΡΟΣΥΝΟΣ”).
In the middle scene, there is a sundial and a man running. He has lost one shoe because he is in a rush. Behind him is a bald, older man who is either his servant or slave. The sundial shows a time between 9 p.m. and 10 p.m. The inscription on one side reads that the man is in a hurry to get dinner because he’s nearly out of time (“ΤΡΕΧΕΔΙΠΝΟΣ-ΑΚΑΙΡΟΣ”).
All that remains of the third mosaic scene is the head and arms of a servant carrying a flame. According to experts, this represents the heating of water for the master’s bath before supper. The bath and supper were two of the most important aspects of daily life during Greek and Roman times.
However, other historians and archaeologists are of a different opinion on the significance of the skeleton.
If the sequence of the three pictures is read from right to left, the man who rushes to eat and drink also places great importance on food and wine. Hence, he is likely rushing to an earlier death, corresponding to the third image of the skeleton.
The Hatay Province is known for its numerous discoveries of Greek and Roman-era mosaics.
According to archaeologists, this particular mosaic most likely dates back to the third century BC and is an artifact from the ancient Greek and Roman city Antioch, established at the end of the fourth century BC.
Antioch was founded by Seleucus I Nicator, a general under Alexander the Great. The city’s geographic location was significant in the spice trade as well and also served as a stop along the renowned Silk Road and Royal Road.
The city of Antioch flourished for so long because of its great military strength, eventually rivaling Alexandria as the chief city of the Near East. Antioch was the capital of the Seleucid Empire until 63 BC, when the Romans conquered the area.
Greek islands are famed around the world as some of the most amazing places to visit.
They are known for their endless sandy beaches, turquoise waters, captivating sunset views, flourishing green landscapes, and magical villages. Greece is an enchanting place full of pleasant surprises and unforgettable vistas.
Some of you might feel like having some peace and quiet, while others might be culture junkies. Some just want to party the summer away near the mesmerizing beaches on the endless summer nights, while dancing to their favorite tunes.
Take some time to explore your options and choose which Greek island will make the cut. Let us help you find your ultimate Greek holiday destination.
Read on to see which of the 20 Greek islands on our list entices you!
Kefalonia is the first on the list for couples. Crowned with pine trees, and ringed with white and golden beaches, with enormous underground caves as well, this island is not to be missed if you love exploring nature.
Kefalonia’s enchanting small port of Fiskardo, with its charming 18th century buildings, emits a feeling of timelessness and eternity to island visitors.
Oia, Santorini. Credit: Greek Reporter.
Known as the “island of love,” the iconic Greek island of Santorini is still a charming romantic destination with its captivating sunset views and traditional Cycladic architecture, despite its overcrowding issues at the height of the tourist season.
Go there during off-peak season to enjoy all that this spectacular island has to offer without all the crowds, so you and your special someone can enjoy the sights in a little more peace and quiet.
Magnificent landscapes, a coastline boasting more than 40 beaches, picturesque fishing villages, and amazing food are just some of what awaits visitors to Milos.
You will fall in love all over again with your partner as you embark on a boat tour of the island or enjoy a fun kayaking experience together upon the aquamarine waters.
Just a short boat ride away from bustling, chaotic Athens, on the small island of Hydra you will not find any cars whatsoever — just the native donkeys. With no must-see list ruling your mind, you can simply chill out and enjoy the effortless bliss that this picturesque island offers.
On Agistri, you can enjoy your vacation time by renting a bike and exploring the small island. One must-see on the island is Dragonera beach, featuring clear green waters.
As you effortlessly float at Dragonera, you will be able to view the dark green forest, which goes down to the water’s edge. Dragonera Beach is also great for camping, a beautiful way to end your day.
Also known as the “Knights’ Island,” Rhodes has a rich historical past, with its many monuments and historical buildings.
The Old Town’s stone-paved alleys, stout walls, and medieval castle create a completely unique atmosphere, an illusion that you have traveled back to the age of medieval knights.
For nonstop Greek island action, consider Corfu and Lefkada
With historical influences from Venice, the cosmopolitan island of Corfu is a popular choice with travelers.
It has everything from watersports to cultural activities, but you can also just take a walk and enjoy the beautiful scenery and spectacular coastline.
Crete is one of the oldest wine producing regions anywhere, and it boasts its own varieties and flavors.
Where the vineyards and olive groves meet, the landscape is dreamlike.
Glass of wine at Manalis Winery, Sikinos. Credit: Glorious 93/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 4.0
Sikinos was known in ancient Greece as the “island of wine.”
Visit the Manalis winery, where you will be invited to taste different varieties of wine, both sweet and fruity, while enjoying the jaw-dropping panoramic views of the Cyclades from the winery’s balcony.
Religious Pilgrimages: The Greek Islands of Tinos and Patmos
The beautiful Greek island Patmos is also called the “Island of the Apocalypse” because the Bible’s Book of Revelation was written there by the Apostle John.
Today, one of the island’s main attractions is the “Cave of the Apocalypse.”
Another important religious monument is the large monastery located above Chora (the island’s capital), which is dedicated to Saint John, who lived out his life on the island after being banished there by the authorities.
For some family Greek island time: Antiparos and Koufonisia
Octopus drying on Antiparos. Credit: Bgabel at wikivoyage /Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0
Antiparos is one of those Greek islands which have somehow managed to stay off the radar — and this makes it an ideal destination for relaxing holidays with the family!
On the southern side of Antiparos, you will find the most impressive sight of the island, the stunning Antiparos cave.
Koufonisia is actually divided into two islands: Ano Koufonissi and Kato Koufonissi.
Ano Koufonissi is the home of nightlife, replete with hotels, sights, restaurants, and bars.
But for a totally different experience, you can visit neighboring Kato Koufonisi, which is completely uninhabited and can only be reached by boat from Ano Koufonissi.
For Water-sport Enthusiasts: The Greek Islands of Naxos and Kea
Aerial view of Naxos. Credit: dronepicr/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY 2.0
You can enjoy the exciting sports of windsurfing and kitesurfing on Naxos if that is your thing.
You can also go for a different option and enjoy a scuba diving session in the local waters, exploring sights such as the Express Samina wreck off the coast of Paros, or an underwater cave.
Other sports you can enjoy here include mountain biking and horseback riding.
Kea is just a short ferry ride away from Athens. Water sports enthusiasts can get their fix on this low-key island: plenty of activities are available, such as wake-boarding, water skiing, and stand-up paddle surfing lessons, which are offered by the Kea Water Sports center on Koundouraki Beach.
The center now hosts an annual SUP (stand up paddle) race.
For nature lovers: Samothraki and Alonnisos Islands
One of the least-visited Greek islands is untouched Samothraki.
Come and enjoy the empty beaches and skinny dipping in the moonlight, along with peaceful oak forests and natural pools and waterfalls which are completely magical and make you think that nymphs and sprites will appear at any time.
View from Alonissos. Credit: Stk2k7 /Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0
For emerald waters and pure, untouched nature, the protected marine park of Alonnisos and its surrounding islets is a must-visit.
Get out your snorkel masks and explore some of the most beautiful waters the Aegean Sea has to offer.
Although sometimes the wealth of options available for once-in-a-lifetime holidays in Greece can be overwhelming, hopefully this list can help you plan your next getaway!
Somewhere on this list, the perfect Greek island paradise for you is waiting.
Poseidon. God of the sea, rivers, storms, earthquakes, bulls and horses, Poseidon occupies a large amount of ancient Greek mythology. Credit: Public domain CC0 photo.
God of the sea, rivers, storms, earthquakes, bulls, and horses, Poseidon occupies a large amount of ancient Greek mythology, literature, and theology, as well as multiple appearances in modern pop culture.
By Dimosthenis Vasiloudis
He had an unpredictable temperament that reflected his domain and could be tranquil or fatally tempestuous as per his natural powers and animal allegories.
Poseidon is associated with many evil and abusive giants and dragons. This affinity with various mythological monsters likely preceded Ionians’ associations of the god with the sea.
The origins of god’s name, “Posei-don,” are yet unclear although the most prominent theory breaks it down into two parts, the first of which means “husband” or “lord” (Greek πόσις, posis) and, the second of which means “earth” (δᾶ, da, the Doric form for γῆ, gaia). In other words, the meaning of this would be something along the lines of lord, or spouse, of the earth.
Some of the many epithets (adjectives) that accompany his name in Homer (and also on the Mycenaean Linear B tablets) tie him more so with the element of earth rather than the sea. Some of these are Enosigaios (Ἐνοσίγαιος) or Enosichthon (Ἐνοσίχθων), which mean “earth-shaker.”
These epithets have an older use as identified in Linear B religious scripts, such as in “E-ne-si-da o-ne,” with the root ‘da.’ Other epithets that relate him with earthquakes are Gaieochos (Γαιήοχος) and Seisichthon (Σεισίχθων).
The god who is said to cause earthquake also protects against them, so that he was simultaneously referred to with the epithets Themeliouchos (Θεμελιούχος), meaning “upholding the foundations,” and Asphaleios (Ἀσφάλειος), meaning “securer, protector.” A homonymous temple is located in Tainaron.
According to these facts, it seems that, initially, during the late Bronze Age Helladic civilizations, the Greek god, Poseidon, was mainly a chthonic deity and was mostly related to the earth as a fertility god or as a ruler or husband in the depths of the deified earth.
Herodotus’ testimony conveys that he is the one who locks the Titans in the dark Tartarus. This is also suggestive of his connection with the Underworld. It was Poseidon who was also invoked by the Spartans every time they felt the earth shaking under their feet, as Xenophon describes the Lacedaemonian invasion of the land of the Argeans in 390 BC.
Poseidon’s cult
The tracking of Poseidon in the maritime space is the last phase in the evolution of his physiognomy in the Greek pantheon and minimizes the prestige he seemed to have had in the proto-Olympian Greek religion.
This is something conveyed to us so far by indications related to the Mycenaean religious texts, where the worship of Poseidon appears to be quite strong and generally competes even with the worship of Zeus, clearly questioning its first position.
If surviving Linear B records are reliable, the name po-se-da-wo-ne (Poseidon) is much more common than does di-u-ja (Zeus).
Τhe limitation of the general Poseidon’s significance and the gradual undermining of his worship in the later Olympic pantheon is reflected both in the myths about the distribution of the power of the world in domains (Poseidon wins the domain of the sea) and, moreover, in the local cult traditions. These present Poseidon as losing his sovereignty over disputed places after a conflict with other gods.
It must be pointed out that the subversion of chthonic deities is connected with socio-political changes that took place within the Greek world after the so-called Dark Ages. The rationalization of religious structures within the new political organization of the city-states was especially significant in this development. This is not necessarily tied in with the invasion of other cultural or ethnic groups in the Greek mainland—according to older assumptions—who brought their own religious traditions.
Polyphemos, the Cyclops, in the holdings of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. Credit: mfa.org
Genealogy
Poseidon was the second son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, so he is the eldest brother of Zeus and Hades. After Poseidon was rescued from Cronus by Zeus, he teamed up with him and his other siblings against Cronus and the Titans.
Along with his siblings, the Hecatonchires and the Cyclopes, Poseidon fought against Cronus and the other Titans in the Battle of the Gods known as Titanomachy. In this battle, the Olympians, the younger generation led by Zeus, defeated the Titans and overthrew Cronus.
When the three brothers deposed their father, the kingdom of the sea fell by lot to Poseidon. He lived with his wife, Amphitrite, who was a beautiful sea nymph, along with his son, Triton, in a palace on the ocean floor which was made of coral and gems. Poseidon often interfered in the plans of Zeus and once even attempted to overthrow his brother with the aid of Hera and Athena.
Poseidon was said to have had many lovers and many children, but not all of them were human. In an archaic myth, Poseidon once pursued his sister, Demeter. She spurned his advances, turning herself into a mare so that she could hide in a herd of horses, but he saw through the deception and became a stallion and captured and raped her.
Their child was a horse, Arion, capable of human speech. Poseidon also raped Medusa. She was then changed into a monster by Athena. When she was later beheaded by Perseus, Chrysaor and Pegasus, the mythical winged divine horse, emerged from her neck.
His other children include Polyphemus (of the Cyclops), Alebion, Tityos, Bergion, Otos, and Ephialtae (of the giants) among many other mythical creatures. Even the Laistrygons and other barbarians, cannibals, savages, and godforsaken thieves of the Greek province were, as many said, seed of Poseidon.
Figures linked to him are characteristic of the many features of Poseidon’s physiognomy, attributes, or phenomena of his domain and hypostases of his divinity. These include: the untamed nature of the sea, unpredictable natural hazards, extreme geological phenomena, his moody nature, and other earlier, similar gods whom Poseidon replaced. Elements of
theological compositions and pre-Olympic forms of his worship are also intertwined.
Experiences and memories of inhospitable places and barbarous peoples, including wild customs, incest, human sacrifices, and cannibalism among other things emphasized the characteristics of Poseidon’s wild sons.
We can assume that the extermination of so many of Poseidon’s wild sons by nobler heroes, as well as the loss of so many beloved places by God himself, are actually legends for the substitution of older forms of worship by redefined newer ones.
Poseidon’s most distinctive symbols
Poseidon’s main weapon and symbol was the trident, which is a three-pronged fishing spear—an image that became his most prominent in art. According to the Greek poet Hesiod, Poseidon’s trident, much like Zeus’s thunderbolt and Hades’ helmet, was fashioned by the three Cyclopes.
In many representations of various vessels, he also wielded a boulder encrusted with sea creatures. He was often crowned with a wreath of wild celery or a simple headband and was either clothed in a robe or with a billowing cloak.
Poseidon’s sacred animals were the bull, horse, and dolphin, and his sacred plants were the pine tree and wild celery—not accidental symbolisms at all if we consider the impetuosity of god’s nature, as well as the metaphor of the forces of both rushing rivers and stormy seas.
As god of the sea, he was also closely associated with other marine creatures. His chariot was drawn by a pair of fish-tailed horses (hippocampus). A very famous mythical creature of Poseidon was the Cretan Bull, sire of the Minotaur (killed by Theseus, a noble hero).
Greek God Poseidon in literature
In the Iliad, Poseidon favors the Greeks as a major protagonist in the Trojan War and, on several occasions, takes an active part in the battle against Trojan forces by leading Achaean heroes in battle with a flashing sword. Poseidon encouraged Greek troops indirectly by disguising himself as an old seer named Calchas.
However, he rescues Aeneas after the Trojan prince is laid low by Achilles. In The Odyssey, Poseidon is notable for his hatred of Odysseus who blinded the god’s son, the Cyclops Polyphemus.
The nemesis of Poseidon prevents Odysseus’s return to Ithaca for many years. Odysseus is even told, notwithstanding his ultimate safe return, that an additional voyage would be required to placate the wrath of Poseidon.
Yet another interesting reference to the god is also made in the Aeneid, a Latin epic poem, written by Virgil in which the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who fled the fall of Troy and traveled to Italy where he became the ancestor of the Romans, is narrated.
Neptune (Roman god of the sea, identified with the Greek Poseidon) is still resentful of the wandering Trojans. He is not as vindictive as Juno, and in Book I, he rescues the Trojan fleet from the goddess’s attempts to wreck it although his primary motivation for doing this is his annoyance at Juno’s having intruded into his domain.
The reserves discovered in Norway are equivalent to at least 70 billion tonnes. Credit: James St. John, CC BY 2.0/Wikipedia
With geologists hunting high and low for battery materials, an enormous new discovery of phosphate rock could have huge implications for the electric vehicle industry.
The reserves, discovered in Rogaland, southwest Norway by Anglo-Norwegian firm Norge Mining, are equivalent to at least 70 billion tonnes. This is very close to the 71 billion tonnes of world reserves that we already knew about.
By Gavin D. J. Harper
Phosphate is one of the key materials used in one type of lithium ion battery, known as “LFP”, and demand for these batteries – and the underlying phosphate – is growing fast. It is therefore a very big deal that some commentators have suggested this new deposit could meet the world’s phosphate rock needs for the next half a century.
Until this discovery, just five countries controlled 85% of global reserves, with 70% in Morocco alone. For now though, it is China that mines the most phosphate rock, producing 85 million tonnes in 2021, with Morocco the next at 38 million tonnes.
This uneven distribution is a particular worry for those countries and regions that have missed out, as phosphate rock is considered a “critical material”. Critical materials are elements that are economically important but are at risk of sudden supply disruptions or generally being in short supply.
The element phosphorus (phosphate is its naturally occurring form) is on the European critical materials list. In the UK, while phosphate rock is not on the critical materials list, it is instead on a “watchlist” of materials of concern.
Phosphate discovery: Food Vs electric vehicle
The new discovery could avoid a looming conflict between farming and electric vehicles over scarce phosphate, perhaps with echoes of the “food vs fuel” dilemma as biofuels compete for agricultural land. Currently, about 90% of phosphate production goes into agricultural fertilisers (phosphorus is the “P” in NPK fertilisers).
The transport industry has to be more picky: only 10% of phosphorus found in sedimentary rock is suitable to make the high purity phosphoric acid used in LFP car batteries. Perhaps the new Norway reserves will mean both can have as much as they need.
Previously, there had been a greater focus on other ways to manufacture lithium ion batteries, involving nickel and other materials such as cobalt, manganese or aluminium.
These batteries store more energy at the same weight. However, they are themselves dependent on other critical elements (cobalt for instance, mostly found in the Democratic Republic of Congo).
In comparison, the materials used to produce LFP batteries are relatively cheap and abundant – some in the industry have jokingly referred to them as “rust and fertiliser” batteries.
Elon Musk has said that his company, Tesla, plans to shift more of its vehicle production to LFP batteries, which offer suitable performance for medium-range EVs and stationary storage.
They are also generally regarded as safer, they charge quickly and, unlike their rivals, they can be charged to 100% without losing any lifetime.
While the material used in LFP batteries does not perform quite as well (in terms of storage per weight) as nickel-based batteries, carmakers have tried to circumvent the problem by making the other components of the battery lighter. This could also help make these batteries more recyclable.
But herein lies another challenge for LFP batteries. Because the materials used to make them are that much cheaper, there is less value to recover at the end-of-life for recyclers, which makes the economics of recycling them more of a challenge.
The International Energy Agency has said LFP type batteries are used in 30% of the world’s new electric vehicles, and nearly all of this 30% is made in China. The market for LFP batteries is forecast to grow from US$10 billion (£7.8 billion) to US$50 billion (£39 billion) in the period 2021-2028. In this context, the discovery in Norway is potentially a massive boon for European automakers, as one of the key battery materials might now be located on the doorstep.
That said, it is always a long journey from the discovery of a resource to production; finding the resource represents the foot of the mountain. While the discovery is welcome, much must be done to mobilize this resource for the benefit of the battery industry.
If further exploration provides favorable results, Norway plans to fast-track the mine with an estimated opening date of 2028. So maybe sometime in the next decade, you might enjoy your first trip in an electric car whose energy storage is enabled by Norwegian phosphate.
Three examples of Byzantine and Byzantine-style crowns. Credit: granada_turnier / CC BY 2.0 / Andrew massyn / Public domain / Meister von San Vital / Wikimedia Commons
From 330 AD, when Constantine the Great proclaimed his new city the capital of the Roman Empire, the emperors ruled from Constantinople until the city fell in 1453. The modern historiographical term “Byzantines” for the Eastern Roman Empire is derived from the ancient name for the city, Byzantium.
Over the centuries, the Byzantine emperors outwardly signified their imperial authority with various garments and items of jewelry. Golden crowns, often beset with precious stones and gems or decorated with colorful artistic scenes, were placed upon the heads of emperors to radiate power.
Few examples of Byzantine crowns survive today, although they are depicted in various frescoes and works of art. Moreover, the Byzantines sometimes gifted “barbarian” kings in Europe with these regal headpieces, a few of which still exist today.
Byzantine crowns
The Byzantine practice of wearing crowns probably stemmed from earlier Roman practices, despite a distaste for kingship among the Romans during the period of the Republic that extended into the Imperial era.
Successful military leaders would sometimes be crowned with laurel leaves. Later, some Roman emperors adopted the solar crown, a style closely associated with the cult of Sol Invictus, a god of the sun.
When Constantine moved the capital eastwards to Constantinople and Christianity became dominant in the empire, the emperors began to wear diadems more often than crowns. These were similar in style to those worn by Alexander the Great and his successors. However, by the 6th century AD, increasingly ornate and complex closed crowns became more popular again.
The Byzantine Emperors of the Komnenoi dynasty can be seen wearing crowns and diadems in these depictions. From left to right: Manuel I Komnenos, Alexios II Komnenos, Andronikos I Komnenos. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons / Compilation assembled by Greek Reporter
Interestingly, historian Vanessa Rousseau identifies in one academic paper that in surviving Byzantine artworks, “the empress who embodied the empire was often depicted in a more elaborate crown than the emperor.”
Centuries of contact with neighboring peoples and civilizations undoubtedly influenced the design of Byzantine crowns and over time they took on a more exotic appearance, more alien to their Greek and Roman roots.
Rousseau further notes that “the jewelry and headgear of neighboring peoples reveals the influence of Eastern headgear and hairdressing upon the evolution of the empress’s crown. Much like the decorative arts of Byzantium, the empress’s crown testifies to the fusion of Mediterranean and Eastern cultures.”
Coin featuring Roman Empress Irene of Athens (left) and her son Constantine VI (right). Credit: Classical Numismatic Group Inc. / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0
Coronations and ceremonial purpose
Crowns, diadems, and torcs often played a role in the coronation of a Byzantine emperor, although these ceremonies varied considerably over the centuries. For example, the emperor was sometimes crowned with a torc worn around the neck rather than a headpiece like a crown.
The donning of the imperial purple, usually in the guise of a cloak or other purple item of clothing may also have been more symbolically important in some cases.
Nevertheless, the use of crowns and diadems was common among Byzantine emperors. For instance, a mosaic of Emperor Justinian I in coronation dress at the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna depicts the emperor wearing an elaborate gem-encrusted diadem.
Mosaic of Emperor Justinian I in coronation dress. Credit: Metropolitan Museum of Art / Wikimedia Commons CC0
Surviving examples
The crowns of Byzantine origin or style that have survived were gifted to foreign rulers by the emperor in Constantinople.
The most famous example is the Holy Crown of Hungary which was gifted by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas to the King Géza I of Hungary. Both men are depicted on the panels of the crown and named in Greek.
The Holy Crown served as the official coronation crown throughout most of the Kingdom of Hungary’s history, being used to crown kings starting from the twelfth century. As of the year 2000, the Holy Crown has been prominently exhibited in the central Domed Hall of the Hungarian Parliament Building.
The Holy Crown of Hungary. Credit: granada_turnier / CC BY 2.0 / Wikimedia Commons
The other surviving example is the Monomachus Crown, named after Emperor Constantine IX Monomachus. The crown was discovered in 1860 by a Hungarian farmer whilst he was plowing a field and now resides in the Hungarian National Museum in Budapest.
Crafted with meticulous detail, the Monomachus Crown comprises seven gilded plates that showcase intricate depictions of prominent figures from the Byzantine era. These plates feature representations of Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Monomachus, his wife Zoe, her sister Theodora, two graceful dancers, and two allegorical figures. It is believed that this splendid crown was most likely created in Constantinople in the year 1042.
The Monomachus Crown. Credit: Andrew massyn / Public domain / Wikimedia Commons
