The History of the Greek War of Independence

Philip Chrysopoulos
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The History of the Greek War of Independence
Greek war of independence
Reenactment of the battle of Lalas Credit: Elias Pergantis.

As Greece counts 203 years from the beginning of its War of independence, the mind travels back to the glorious days of 1821.

Those were times of bravery and battle, of blood and retaliation, rebels fighting against organized Ottoman armies, of total sacrifice and rebirth.

The new nation was conceived and born on the battlefield, nourished by the blood of its heroes, its ground a living monument of courage.

Watch our short documentary, narrated by Nasos Papargyropoulos and featuring unique photography by Elias Pergantis telling the quintessential story of Greece:

The heroes’ names echo through the decades, still inspiring awe, like the countless statues across the land, along with the battlegrounds:

Kolokotronis, Karaiskakis, Nikitaras, Androutsos, Diakos, Papaflessas, Kanaris, Bouboulina, Tombazis; Alamana, Dervenakia, Gravia, Missolonghi, Maniaki, Chios, Navarino.

Greek War of Independence
“Rigas,” by Peter von Hess, (left) and the Thourios manuscript. Public Domain

Rigas Feraios, Filiki Eteria pioneers of Greek war of independence

It all started decades before 1821, when Rigas Feraios a writer and political theorist, a man who was active in the Modern Greek Enlightenment, killed an important Ottoman figure and fled to the mountains, at least according to the legend.

Feraios, whose real name was Antonios Rigas Velestinlis, may have fled Greece for a better future abroad as many young Greeks were doing at the time.

In any case, he formed the vanguard of the Greek War of Independence. His writings called on Greeks to rebel and fight for their freedom.

His epic poem “Thourios” contains a line that brings a tear to the eyes of Greeks, even today: ῾Καλύτερα μίας ώρας ελεύθερη ζωή παρά σαράντα χρόνια σκλαβιά και φυλακή.’

(“It is better live for one hour as a free man than forty years as a slave.”)

Feraios travelled in the Balkans, Italy and Austria in an attempt to drum up support for the Greek cause of liberation. Tragically, while in Austria he was betrayed and was later arrested and handed it over to the Ottomans.

He was then thrown into the Danube River to drown. His last words were: “I have sown a rich seed; the hour is coming when my country will reap its glorious fruits.” It was 1798.

Indeed, the seeds had been sown. In 1814, three like-minded Diaspora Greeks came together in Odessa, in present-day Ukraine, at that time home to a thriving Greek community.

The three men formed a secret society called the Filiki Eteria (The Society of Friends)  with the decidedly “unfriendly” purpose of initiating an armed uprising to rid Greece of the Ottomans.

The three founders were Nikolaos Skoufas, from the province of Arta, Emmanuil Xanthos, from Patmos and Athanasios Tsakalov, from Ioannina.

The Filiki Eteria recruited mostly Phanariot Greeks from Russia, local chieftains from Greece, and Serbs into its ranks.

Two of its early outstanding members were Alexandros Ypsilantis, a prince and high-ranking officer of the Imperial Russian Cavalry, and Moldovan lord Michael Soutzos.

Future Greek War of Independence leaders such as Theodoros Kolokotronis, Odysseas Androutsos, Dimitris Plapoutas and the Metropolitan Germanos of Old Patras joined the effort as well.

In 1818, the Filiki Eteria moved to Constantinople, the year was marked by the death of founding member Skoufas. Xanthos and Tsakalov then tried to find a new leader to take over the reins.

Alexandros Ypsilantis became the head of the Filiki Eteria in April of 1820, starting preparations for the armed uprising immediately, setting up a military unit he named the Sacred Band.

Initially it was proposed to begin the revolution in Constantinople, but the idea was scrapped in favor of the Peloponnese (called the Moreas at that time).

The Filiki Eteria created a fund in which a large sum of money was deposited to meet the needs for arms, ammunition and supplies for the revolution.

They called on diaspora Greeks to contribute in any way they could to the war of liberation from the Ottomans. Ypsilantis sent fiery letters to all the centers of Hellenism across the world, asking them join in the fight.

Greek War of Independence
“The Exodus of Missolonghi,” by Theodoros Vryzakis. Public Domain

In October of 1820, Ypsilantis decided to begin the revolution in Moldova. He issued a declaration on 8 October 1820, announcing that he would soon be starting a revolt against the Ottoman Empire, which later would prove catastrophic because the Greek leader expected support that he never received.

The powers that Ypsilantis counted on — predominantly Russia — stayed clear of his ambitious campaign.

At the same time, the Ottomans were gathering a huge army and entered Moldova in order to suppress Ypsilantis’ nascent army and an uprising in Moldova.

The Turkish army met Ypsilanti’s men at Iasi. The Sacred Band and the army of volunteers were slaughtered in the Battle at Iasi.

Nevertheless, the revolutionary seed of the Filiki Eteria was planted, and the slogan “Liberty or Death” began to be uttered more and more on the lips of Greeks. The tide had turned.

Greek War of Independence
“Palaion Patron Germanos raises the flag at Agia Lavra,” by an unknown artist. Public Domain

Agia Lavra Monastery: March 25, 1821

The defeat of Ypsilantis’ army in Moldova did not deter the eager Greeks in Moreas, however. They wanted to start the War of Independence as soon as humanly possible.

On March 13, 1821 Metropolitan Germanos of Old Patras (Palaion Patron Germanos) declared war at Agia Lavra Monastery, blessing the efforts of the freedom fighters.

March 13 is the day given by historians for this event. Yet Greeks chose March 25th as the historical day of the beginning of the war in earnest, so that the outbreak of the Revolution would coincide with the feast of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary.

The Virgin Mary is the second-most sacred figure in the Greek Orthodox Church after Jesus Himself, and the choice of the day inextricably connects Orthodoxy with the Greek War of Independence.

When Palaion Patron Germanos raised the flag with the cross and blessed it, he signified that this was not only a war for freedom, but also a war of faith.

The slogan was “Liberty or Death” and the Greeks, who had been organizing their forces for months, went into the War of Independence with only that in mind.

Yet the very first flag of the revolution was actually raised on the island of Spetses on March 13 — by a woman. no less — Laskarina Bouboulina.

Bouboulina was a prominent shipowner on Spetses. Twice widowed with seven children, she was extremely wealthy, owning several vessels.  

Once Spetses revolted against the Ottomans, the islands of Hydra and Psara followed suit. Between them, the islands had a fleet of over 300 ships to fight any naval battles that came their way.

The Greek heroine managed to capture the fortress at Monemvasia. She also took part in the blockade of Pylos and brought supplies to the revolutionaries by sea.

On March 17, the Maniots — descendants of the Spartans — declared war in Aeropolis and advanced to Kalamata with 2,000 men under their leader Petros Mavromichalis.

There, they joined forces with the troops of chieftains Theodoros Kolokotronis, Nikitaras and Papaflessas. Kalamata fell into Greek hands on March 23.

By the end of March, the rebelling Greeks controlled the whole countryside of the Moreas, while the Turks were confined to the forts in the cities.

The provincial capital of Moreas was Tripolitsa (today’s Tripolis), where many Muslims and their familes had fled.

Greek War of Independence
“Theodoros Kolokotronis and his Warriors,” by Peter von Hess. Pubic Domain

The Greeks, led by Theodoros Kolokotronis, besieged Tripolitsa for months. Finally, the city fell on September 23 and was unfortunately given over to the mob for two entire days.

By January of 1822 the entire Moreas region was liberated and became Greek territory once again.

The news that the Greeks had revolted naturally infuriated the Ottomans. In the seat of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople, the Sultan ordered the massacre of the city’s Greek population in retaliation.

The Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church, Gregory V, was publicly hanged despite the fact that he had condemned the revolution and preached obedience to the Sultan.

Mass executions of Greeks took place along with an extensive pogrom, including the destruction of churches, and widespread looting of Greek properties.

The war of Independence in Central Greece

Central Greece joined the war, with Phocis and Salona being first, on March 24 and 27 respectively. Athanasios Diakos captured Livadeia on March 31 and Thebes two days later.

The revolutionaries moved south to Athens in mid-April and forced the Turks to fortify themselves in the Acropolis. The Greeks then laid siege to the holy mountain of the Acropolis.

At the time, Athens was populated by only about 10,000 people, half of whom were Christian Greeks and the other half were Muslims, being either Turks, Albanians or Greek Muslims.

The response of the Ottomans to the Central Greece revolt was to send Commander Omer Vrioni with his sizeable army to supress it and then, they hoped, move to Moreas to do the same.

Greek War of Independence
“Athanasios Diakos,” by Dionysios Tsokos. Public Domain

The army of Athanasios Diakos met with Omer Vrioni’s troops at Alamana on April 23, 1821. The outnumbered Greeks fought heroically, but tragically succumbed to the Ottoman forces.

Diakos was wounded and taken prisoner. He was then asked by Vrioni to denounce his Christian faith and collaborate with the Ottomans. Diakos naturally refused.

Diakos’ loyalty to Greece and devotion to his faith became legendary. His horrific punishment — death by impalement — became a symbol of Ottoman barbarism and brutality.

In Alamana, Greeks lost a great military leader. They also lost another battle at Eleftherohori. But thankfully, Vrioni’s army was not invincible.

The Greeks soon managed to halt the Ottoman advance at Gravia Inn under the leadership of Odysseas Androutsos.

When the Ottomans approached, they sent a messenger to demand the surrender of the rebelling Greeks.

Not only they did not surrender, but Androutsos shot the messenger dead, and along with his men they took cover at the Gravia Inn.

Forcing the Turkish Army to pass through a narrow passage where Gravia Inn was, Androutsos and his handful of men inflicted heavy casualties upon the enemy.

After the defeat, Vrioni postponed his advance towards Moreas while awaiting reinforcements. However, he invaded and captured Livadeia and was able to lift the siege of the Acropolis in Athens.

The Greeks then regrouped, and a force of 2,000 men managed to destroy a Turkish relief army on its way to Vrioni at Vassilika, forcing him to abandon Attica and retreat to Ioannina.

By the end of 1821, the revolutionaries had managed to temporarily secure their positions in Central Greece.

Greek War of Independence
“First National Assembly,” by Ludwig Michael von Schwanthaler. Wikipedia/Public Domain

The provisional Constitution of 1822

The first day of 1822 was marked by the approval by vote of the first Constitution of the Revolution by the National Assembly of Epidaurus.

Better known as the “Provisional Polity of Greece,” it proclaims the nation’s decision for “political presence and independence.”

The text is influenced not only by the French Constitutions of 1793 and 1795, but also by the American Declaration of Independence of July 4, 1776 and the 1787 Constitution of the United States.

Members of an executive and a legislative body that were to govern the liberated territories were then appointed. Alexandros Mavrokordatos became president of the executive body.

Dimitrios Ypsilantis, who had called for the Assembly, was elected president of the legislative body.

However, in the regions of Greece that had not been liberated, the Ottomans retaliated against the rebels, while some islands were still reluctant to join the cause.

When Greeks from other islands landed on Chios and attacked the Turks in the citadel, the majority of its residents refused to participate.

The Ottomans responded vengefully to the killing of their soldiers and sent thousands of troops to the island.

The Chios Massacre was one of the darkest moments of the entire Greek War of Independence. The Turks slaughtered 42,000 residents and took 52,000 as slaves.

Greek War of Independence
“The Chios Massacre,” by Eugene Delacroix. Public Domain

The massacre of thousands of Christians by the Ottoman hordes provoked international outrage and led to increasing support for the Greek cause worldwide.

Greeks could not allow for the Chios Massacre to pass and felt that they had to retaliate. On June 6, 1822 Admiral Constantinos Kanaris served justice in the best way possible.

As Turkish admiral Kara-Ali Pasha was holding a celebration on his flagship on Chios, Kanaris and his men approached with a fire boat and left it next to where the powder was stored on the ship.

All the Turks aboard the ship, including Kara-Ali Pasha, were instantly killed in the resulting explosion, with the fire spreading to the adjacent ships.

Several ships were destroyed, while the Ottoman casualties reached 2,000, including naval officers and seamen.

Greek War of Independence
“Kanaris burning the Turkish flagship,” by Peter von Hess. Public Domain

Philhellenes support the Greek War of Independence

The Chios Massacre brought international attention to the Greek struggle for liberation. From Europe to America, the scope of philhellenism grew wider as more and more academics and others became enamored of the Greek cause.

The English romantic poet Lord Byron was surely the best known philhellene of the time. Byron joined the Greek War of Independence actively and became a national hero for all Greeks, although he did not fall in battle.

Byron gave his life for Greece, dying in 1824 at the age of 36 from a fever contracted after the first and second siege of Missolonghi.

Greek War of Independence
“Lord Byron,” Credit: Unknown/Wikimedia Commons

Inspired by Byron, American philhellene Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe sailed for Greece as soon as he earned his medical degree from Harvard  University in 1824.

Howe, just 23 at the time, joined the Greek Army as a surgeon. His services, however, were not confined to surgery, because he fought in battles showing great bravery and skill in commanding troops.

Greek War of Independence
Philhellene Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe was called “The Lafayette of the Greek Revolution.”

His enthusiasm and humanity soon won him the title “the Lafayette of the Greek Revolution.”

Even after returning to America in 1827 he engaged in campaigns to raise funds and supplies to help alleviate the desperate famine and widespread suffering in Greece, sending the equivalent of $16,000,000 in today’s money to the country.

Jonathan Peckham Miller, George Jarvis and George Wilson are three other great American philhellenes who were inspired to travel to Greece to fight in the war of liberation.

The Greek civil wars (1824-1825)

The momentum of the Greek uprising was such that by mid-1822 the whole of the Moreas and a big part of Central Greece were free.

The destruction of the Turkish Army at Dervenakia on July 26, 1822 sealed the Greek victory and recapture of a large part of the homeland — albeit temporarily.

The outcome of the victorious Battle at Dervenakia, also known as the Dramalis Massacre, was the destruction of a significant part of the Turkish Army.

Coming from Drama in the north of Greece to the Peloponnesian peninsula with 30,000 men, Dramalis (known as Drama Ali) wanted to take back Tripolitsa and Moreas.

The Turks took Corinth by storm and moved toward Argolis. Kolokotronis and his men were positioned in two of the four small mountain passes, called Dervenakia.

Trapped in the narrow passages, the Ottoman soldiers became the prey of the hidden Greeks. After the Ottomans counted 2,500-3,000 dead and wounded they were forced to retreat.

Unfortunately, solidarity between the victors was not as easily won.

Confident that they could govern the part of Greece that was free, the differences between military captains and politicians soon turned into conflict. The conflict had both political and regional dimensions, as the leaders of Central Greece (Roumeli) and island shipowners turned against the leaders of the Moreas.

The disputes led to a Second National Assembly that gathered in March 1823 in Astros. At that meeting, central governance was strengthened at the expense of regional bodies.

A new constitution was voted on, and new members were elected for the executive and legislative bodies.

Theodoros Kolokotronis and Petros Mavromichalis were elected to the executive body and Alexandros Mavrokordatos was elected president of the legislative body.

The first war started in March 1824, when the government asked Panos Kolokotronis to surrender the city of Nafplion. Panos refused and the government decided to besiege the city.

On March 22, 1824, the forces loyal to the new executive body besieged Tripolitsa, and after two weeks of fighting an agreement was reached between the two sides.

However, in the elections of October 1824, Peloponnesians who comprised the executive body took most of the government posts, shutting out their rivals.

New negotiations then began, but they led to armed conflict. Kolokotronis roused the residents of Tripolitsa against the local tax collectors of the government.

Papaflessas and Yannis Makriyannis failed to suppress the rebellion of the Kolokotronis followers, which spread throughout the Peloponnese.

Kolokotronis’ son, Panos, was killed by his opponents, and that devastated the great general, who could not overcome his son’s death and laid down his arms for a some time.

While the Peloponnesians were undecided about their further moves, the government regrouped its armies, which now consisted mainly of Roumeliots and Souliots.

The plan was to invade the Moreas and suppress Kolokotronis’ rebels. Roumeli chieftains like Georgios Karaiskakis, Kitsos Tzavelas and Ioannis Gouras led the campaign.

Kolokotronis was arrested and jailed and Mavrokordatos assumed the position of the President of the executive.

In May 1825, under the pressure of the Egyptian intervention, during the army of Ibrahim Pasha campaign, those imprisoned were released and granted amnesty.

During the civil war, on the mainland, where Greeks fought against other Greeks for petty political reasons, a major massacre took place on Psara Island.

The destruction of Psara on July 5, 1824, was one of the most moving tragedies of the entire Greek Revolution, as the the Ottomans decimated the civilian population of the island.

At the time, the entire population of Psara had been about 7,000 souls. After the massacre, the population of the island never rose over 1,000.

Second phase of the Greek war of Independence

While the Greeks were involved in their own war, the Ottomans started a major campaign to recapture the cities and countryside now governed by the revolutionaries.

On February 26, 1825, the Egyptian Army of Ibrahim Pasha landed undisturbed in Methoni, in the Moreas, with 4,000 infantry and 400 cavalry, and took over the city’s castle.

His plan was to take back the entire Peloponnesian peninsula from the Greeks. In the following days his men were reinforced with more troops.

The total number of Ibrahim’s infantry reached 15,000. By the end of April he had occupied the strategic castles of Koroni and Pylos (Neokastro).

On May 20, the Greek war hero Papaflessas decided to repulse the Egyptians himself. With a force of 3,000 Greeks, Papaflessas marched south to attack Ibrahim.

However, half of his troops deserted when they saw the massive Egyptian Army approach. Papaflessas then proclaimed an eloquent speech that shored up the morale of the remaining men.

The Greeks fought bravely and held their positions but were eventually overwhelmed. About 1,000 Greeks, including Papaflessas, fell that day.

Ibrahim ordered his men to recover the head and body of Papaflessas and place it upright on a post, as a mark of respect for a valiant foe.

Legend has it that Ibrahim kissed Papaflessas’ head and said “If all Greeks were like him, I would not take charge of this campaign.”

Greek War of Independence
“Papaflessas at Maniaki,” Unknown artist. Public Domain

Ibrahim’s army advanced and on June 7 recaptured Tripolitsa, which had been abandoned by the Greeks.

Ibrahim Pasha then sent 5,000 troops to take over Nafplion, the seat of the Greek government.

On June 24, 1825 Greek forces of about 500 men, led by Captain Yannis Makriyannis and Demetrios Ypsilantis, met Ibrahim’s army at the Lerna Mills, a few miles from Nafplion.

It was a suicide mission — and Makriyannis acknowledged that fact. Yet he claimed that since God was on their side, they would win. If they died, it would be a good death, he added.

The outnumbered Greeks somehow defeated the Egyptian army. This, the first Greek success against Ibrahim, saved the city of Nafplion.

Greek War of Independence
“The Exodus of Missolonghi,” by Theodoros Vryzakis. Public Domain

The heroic exodus and fall of Missolonghi

On April 1825, Reshid Mehmed Pasha received the following order from the Sultan: “Either Missolonghi falls or your head falls.” This meant the third siege of the western Greece city.

It was a difficult task to take over the fortified city, which was surrounded by lakes. The brave chieftains Notis Botsaris and Kitsos Tzavellas led the defense of Missolonghi.

The city was defended by about 3,000 men, with several philhellenes among them.

The siege lasted an entire year, with Ibrahim Pasha joining the attack after the first months. Yet what the vast Egyptian army could not achieve, starvation and disease did.

The defending captains decided to lead the starving civilians to a heroic exodus, while those who could not follow would stay and defend the city to the death.

When the Greeks charged heroically out of the city gates, they were fired upon by Turks and Egyptians.

Many panicked and fled back inside the walls, while the Turkish-Egyptian forces had already entered the city, killing, looting and raping.

Of the 7,000 people who attempted to escape, only 1,000 made it to safety. The rest were slaughtered or sold into slavery.

Many of the surviving Greek Christian women became sex slaves to Egyptian soldiers. In an especially grisly act, the Turks displayed 3,000 severed heads on the city walls.

Yet the Missolonghi massacre proved a victory for the Greek cause in the end, and the Ottomans paid dearly for their harsh treatment of Missolonghi.

After this atrocity, many Western Europeans felt increased sympathy for the Greek cause, while they were outraged against the barbaric Ottomans.

The horrific event influenced the eventual decision of Britain, France and Russia to intervene militarily in the Battle of Navarino one year later.

Greek War of Independence
“Georgios Karaiskakis,” by Georgios Margariris. Credit: Public Domain

Karaiskakis beats the Turks in Central Greece

After the fall of Missolonghi the Turks continued their campaign to recapture the rest of Roumeli (Central Greece). Turkish troops under Mustafa Bey started their moves.

Upon receiving intelligence of the Ottoman Army’s maneuvers, Georgios Karaiskakis prepared a surprise attack near the village of Arachova.

On November 18, Mustafa Bey’s 2,000 troops were blockaded in Arachova by the Greek Army. An 800-man force which attempted to relieve the defenders three days later failed.

On November 22, Mustafa Bey was mortally wounded and Ottoman morale plunged, as cold weather and heavy rainfall plagued the hunger-stricken defenders.

At midday on November 24 the Ottomans made an attempt at breaking out. Most were killed in the fighting or perished from the cold.

The Greek victory at Arachova gained the rebels valuable time before the Great Powers came to their assistance one year later.

The Battle of Arachova brought the name of Georgios Karaiskakis to the forefront, making him one of the most well-known heroes of the Greek War of Independence.

Greek War of Independence
“Battle at Navarino,” by Ambroise Louis Garneray. Credit: Wikipedia/Public Domain

The Battle of Navarino

October 10, 1827 was a fateful day for Greek independence as British, French and Russian squadrons entered the harbor at Navarino Bay on the west coast of the Peloponnesian peninsula, in the Ionian Sea.

An Ottoman armada which, in addition to imperial warships, included squadrons from Egypt and Tunis, was destroyed by the Allied forces.

Virtually the entire Ottoman fleet was decimated, despite the fact that the Ottoman ships’ crews put up an extraordinary fight.

In another amazing turn, this was to be the last major naval battle in history to be fought entirely with sailing ships, although most ships fought at anchor.

The Allied naval forces essentially put an end to Turkish plans to recapture the parts of Greece they had lost after centuries of rule.

The casualties of the Ottomans were extremely high and morale was at the lowest point after that day.

Russia declares war on Turkey

The Greek War of Independence sparked the Russo-Turkish war that was long due, according to historians.

On April 26, 1826 the war broke out after Sultan Mahmud II closed the Dardanelles to Russian ships and revoked the 1826 Akkerman Convention.

The Turkish move was related to the Greek War of Independence because the closing of the Dardanelles was in retaliation for the Russian participation in the Battle of Navarino.

Greeks welcomed the war, of course, because the Ottoman troops would be leaving the newly-founded state to concentrate on the war against the Russians.

Greek War of Independence
Map of Greece after the Treaty of London. Credit: Lassner/Wikipedia CC BY-SA 4.0

May 7, 1832: The Treaty of London establishes the state of Greece

The Treaty of London, signed by Britain, France and Russia, established a new Greek state, appointing Otto of Bavaria the King of Greece, defining Greece as an independent kingdom.

The Arta-Volos line was delineated as Greece’s northern frontier. The Ottoman Empire was indemnified in the sum of 40,000,000 piastres for the loss of their former territory.

The exact parameters of the Kingdom’s borders were confirmed again in the London Protocol of August 30, 1832, signed by the Great Powers, which ratified the border between Greece and the Ottoman Empire.

The London Treaty marked the formal end of the Greek War of Independence, creating modern Greece as an independent state, finally free of the Ottoman Empire.

Tempi Disaster: Allegations of Tampered Audio Spark Political Turmoil in Greece

Paula Tsoni
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Tempi Disaster: Allegations of Tampered Audio Spark Political Turmoil in Greece
Tempi train disaster, Greece
A Greek newspaper alleged that audio recordings from the night of the Tempi train disaster were edited in a way to point towards human error rather than negligence by officials. Credit: AMNA

A leading story by Greek newspaper To Vima, alleging that audio recordings related to the deadly Tempi train collision were tampered with before being leaked to the media, has triggered political developments in Greece, as opposition is preparing a no-confidence vote against the government.

The newspaper report alleges there has been manipulation of evidence through the deliberate editing of the audio conversations between the station master and train driver on the night of the crash, with the aim to claim that the fatal collision in February 2023 was caused by human error rather than by negligence at official level.

The newspaper quotes documents from the latest research conducted by the forensic labs of the Hellenic Police that confirm the editing took place in the first hours after the disaster.

Opposition reacts with non-confidence proposal

The latest cover-up allegations about the disaster triggered fast response from the opposition.

PASOK leader Nikos Androulakis called on the other opposition parties to propose a no-confidence vote against the government.

“I take on the institutional initiative and call on all parties of the democratic spectrum to rise to the occasion,” Androulakis said.

“It is infuriating that at a time when 57 people lost their lives in an unjust and tragic way, when their families were grieving and millions of Greeks were thinking that their own children could be on the fatal train, some persons had as priority to remove the conversations of the station master in question, to alter them and feed them to friendly media to boost the narrative of human error,” he added.

Main opposition leader Stefanos Kasselakis of SYRIZA-Progressive Alliance called on Prime Minister Mitsotakis to resign “so Greece can be led in an orderly manner to democratic elections.”

In a video statement posted on social media, Kasselakis also touched on the wiretapping scandal and recent leak of diaspora voter email addresses to claim that new national elections should take place under international observation and challenged the Prime Minister to respond within twenty-four hours.

Nea Aristera and the Greek Communist Party (KKE) said they will support the no-confidence vote proposed by PASOK.

Government denies editing of Tempi train disaster recordings

Government spokesperson Pavlos Marinakis expressed his surprise at how soon the opposition had reacted to the newspaper’s publication and responded that the justice system had the entire original conversations before the accident, provided through the Hellenic Police criminal unit.

“It is now becoming obvious that this antigovernment campaign based on a national tragedy and using the cynical manipulation of pain was nothing but part of an effort to destabilize Greece itself,” Marinakis said.

He claimed that the newspaper’s story had already been addressed by the Greek public broadcaster ERT as early as March 2, 2023.

“Nikos Androulakis rushed to adopt right away the propaganda of a publication with unfounded data, which was countered immediately,” the government spokesperson added.

Greece Secures 7 Firefighting Aircraft From Canada During Mitsotakis-Trudeau Meeting

Paula Tsoni
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Greece Secures 7 Firefighting Aircraft From Canada During Mitsotakis-Trudeau Meeting
Kyriakos Mitsotakis, Justin Trudeau
Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis met with his Canadian counterpart Justin Trudeau in Montreal during an official visit. Credit: Greek Prime Minister’s Office

A joint statement between the Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis and the Prime Minister of Canada, Justin Trudeau, has confirmed the Greek acquisition of seven state-of-the-art DHC-515 firefighting aircraft from the Canadian Commercial Corporation.

The two state leaders met in Montreal on Sunday to celebrate Greek Independence Day. This was the first visit of a Greek Prime Minister to Canada in 41 years.

“Canada is honoured to host Greece on this occasion, reaffirming the enduring friendship between our countries, as reflected in the strength and extent of our close strategic, economic and cultural ties,” the joint statement says.

There are nearly 300,000 Canadians of Greek origin and many Canadians living, working, and studying in Greece, which is why Canada is investing in a brand-new Laval Community Complex alongside the Hellenic Community of Greater Montréal.

The complex will be a space for the public, including the Greek community, to celebrate culture, tradition, and heritage. It will include a theater, a sports complex, a library, offices, and other spaces to bring the community together and host commemorative events.

Greece, Canada enjoy successful economic partnership

The acquisition of the firefighting aircraft is a sign of the dynamic trade and economic partnership that Canada and Greece enjoy.

“The Canada-EU Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) has created significant opportunity for both Greek and Canadian businesses and workers. Since its provisional application in 2017, trade between Canada and Greece has grown by 80%,” the two leaders said in their statement.

Kyriakos Mitsotakis, Justin Trudeau
The Greek and Canadian PMs discussed opportunities for cooperation of the two countries in a variety of fields. Credit: Greek Prime Minister’s Office

“Moreover, investors, in industries like health, renewable energy, infrastructure and mineral resources, have injected billions of dollars into our respective economies. The potential for further growth in trade and investment between our countries remains strong, including in sectors such as aerospace, defense and security, professional training, and tourism,” they add.

The two countries are planning to explore a Memorandum of Understanding in tourism promotion that looks at sharing data on how to best increase tourist flows between Canada and Greece, and collaborating on best practices to deal with the impact of natural disasters and climate change on the tourism sector.

The recent negotiations between Canada and the European Union towards Canada’s association in the EU’s flagship research and innovation program, Horizon Europe, will also open new opportunities for Canada to work with Greece on projects and initiatives in emerging technologies such as AI.

The 20 Events That Defined the Greek War of Independence

Philip Chrysopoulos
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The 20 Events That Defined the Greek War of Independence
Greek War of Independence
Metropolitan Germanos of Patras raises the flag of the Greek Revolution during the War of Independence. Credit: Public Domain

The Greek War of Independence, which brought about the birth of the modern Hellenic nation, is full of memorable events, most of them bloody battles and incredible feats of heroism.

The war cry “Freedom or Death” echoed across Greece as a smattering of heroes fought against the vast army and navy of the Ottoman Empire, the underarmed against the well-armed, those desperate for freedom against their complacent overlords.

The spark was provided by enlightened Greeks living mostly in Europe and Russia, thirsty for the rebirth of a once-glorious nation that had been deliberately reduced to a land of poor, uneducated masses subservient to their Ottoman rulers.

1814: The founding of the Filiki Eteria sparks Greek War of Independence

Insignia of Filiki Eteria.
Insignia of Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends). Public Domain

The Filiki Eteria, or Society of Friends, was a secret organization founded in 1814 in Odessa, Russia (now in Ukraine) with the purpose of overthrowing Ottoman rule in Greece and establishing an independent Greek state.

The Society’s members were mainly educated, young Phanariot Greeks from Constantinople and the Russian Empire, but also included Greek politicians and military leaders and affluent academics as well as several Orthodox Christian leaders from other nations.

March 13, 1821: Bouboulina raises the flag of revolution

Greek War of Independence
Greek War of Independence heroine Laskarina Boubourina. Credit: Public Domain

The first flag of the revolution was actually raised on the island of Spetses by Laskarina Bouboulina. Twice widowed, with seven children, she was extremely wealthy, owning several ships.  

On April 3 Spetses revolted against Ottoman rule, followed by the islands of Hydra and Psara. Between them the islands had a fleet of over 300 ships to use in the War. Bouboulina and her fleet of eight ships sailed to Nafplion and took part in the siege of the impregnable fortress there.

In the attack on Monemvasia later, she even managed to capture the fortress. She also took part in the blockade of Pylos and brought supplies to the revolutionaries by sea. 

Bouboulina became a national hero, one of the first women to play a major role in the Greek War of Independence. Without her, and her ships, the Greeks might not have won the war.

March 17, 1821 Mani declares war of Independence on the Ottomans

On March 17, 1821, the Maniots, descendants of the Spartans on the Mani peninsula in Peloponnese, declared war in Areopoli. The same day, a force of 2,000 Maniots under the command of Petros Mavromichalis advanced on the Messenian town of Kalamata.

There, they joined forces with the troops under the command of the revolutionaries Theodoros Kolokotronis, Nikitaras and Papaflessas. Kalamata fell to the Greeks on March 23, while in Achaia, the town of Kalavryta was besieged on March 21.

March 25, 1821: Greek War of Independence is declared

The Greek War of Independence was declared on March 25, 1821 by Metropolitan Germanos of Patras, who raised the Revolutionary banner with its cross in the Monastery of Agia Lavra, near Kalavryta.

Although some historians doubt the historicity of this event, the date is part of the consciousness of Greeks as the official date of the declaration of Greece’s War of Independence.

It is also said that such was the determination of those present, that they shouted “Eleftheria I thanatos (Freedom or death).”

Greek War of Independence
“Athanasios Diakos at the Battle of Alamana.” Credit: Public Domain

April 23, 1821: The brutal killing of Athanasios Diakos

Athanasios Diakos
Portrait of Athanasios Diakos by Dionysios Tsokos. 1861. Credit: Dionysios Tsokos / Public Domain / Wikimimedia Commons

Athanasios Diakos, whose real name was Athanasios Grammatikos, starred in the revolution of Eastern Central Greece, triumphing in many battles against the Ottomans in the region.

He had even managed to take over Livadia, Thebes and Atalanta as a result of his perspicacity and courage. At the Battle of Alamana, Diakos and his band of just a few men confronted Kiose Mehmet and Omer, who had been ordered to suppress the revolution in Roumeli (as Central Greece was named then).

After a heroic battle, Diakos was wounded and taken prisoner. He was then asked to renounce his Christian faith and collaborate with the Ottomans; but he refused.

The defiance of the Greek hero and his devotion to Greece and his faith became legend. His extraordinarily gruesome punishment — death by impalement — became a symbol of the Ottomans’ barbarism and brutality.

May 8, 1821: Battle at Gravia Inn

Just one month after that, Omer Vryonis with his troops continued his advance in Central Greece, while Chieftain Odysseas Androutsos and his men were locked up in Gravia Inn, a strategic, narrow spot on the road.

When the Ottomans approached, they asked the rebelling Greeks to surrender, sending a messenger to negotiate. Androutsos then started fighting the attackers, shooting the messenger dead.

The Ottomans attacked the inn but were repulsed with great ease. Vryonis, seeing his men falling from the Greek bullets, ordered for cannons to blow up the inn.

But before the cannons arrived, the Greeks somehow managed to flee the inn. More than 300 Ottomans were killed and 600 were wounded, while the Greeks lost only six warriors as a result of the action that day.

Greek War of Independence
Statue of Kolokotronis at Nafplion. Credit: C Messier CC BY-SA 4.0/Wikipedia

May 13, 1821: The battle at Valtetsi

The Greek Army under General Theodoros Kolokotronis then began to approach Tripolitsa (today’s Tripolis), the most important fort of the Ottomans, which was the center of their power in Morias in the Peloponnese, with Kehagia Bey ruling at the time.

On May 12, Kehagia Bey left Tripolitsa with 12,000 men, heading for Kalamata to take back the city from the Greeks. Kolokotronis was notified and attacked the Ottomans — with just 700 men.

The battle continued until night without any side retreating. In the early hours of May 13, the Ottomans launched a new offensive. After 23 hours of fighting, Kehagia Bey ordered a retreat and Kolokotronis forced them to flee erratically, dropping their weapons.

In total, the Ottomans had sustained 300 fatalities and there were more than 500 wounded, while the Greeks had only two deaths. The Greeks, who for the first time fought in an organized manner and using real strategy, then gained confidence, realizing their tactical superiority over the Ottomans.

September 23, 1821: Greeks capture Tripolitsa

After months of siege, 15,000 Greek troops had surrounded Tripolitsa, waiting for the right moment to take over the main fort of the enemy in Morias.

On September 23, the two sides were negotiating the conditions for the Ottomans to surrender, while the Albanian troops who fought on the side of the rulers were ready to leave the city.

Because of the turmoil, the cannon tower of the Nafplia gate of Nafplia was left unguarded. In the morning, fifty men, on their own initiative, started climbing the wall by standing on top of each other’s shoulders. Once in, they opened the gate and raised the Greek flag.

The Greeks then opened other gates, and the entire army rushed into the city. The massacre that followed was horrific. “My horses hooves did not touch the ground from the walls to the palace”, Kolokotronis wrote later in his memoirs.

The Greeks killed thousands of Ottomans. The real gain for the rebelling Greeks was 11,000 weapons, while their morale was boosted to the skies.

In another important milestone, the Greek victory was hailed in the international press as a turning point in the Greek War of Independence.

January 1st, 1822: The provisional Constitution

This first day of the year marked the date when the National Assembly of Epidaurus voted for the first constitution of the Greek War of Independence, better known as the “Provisional Polity of Greece.” Its preamble proclaims the nation’s decision for “political presence and independence.”

The text is clearly influenced not only by the French Constitutions of 1793 and 1795, but also by the American Declaration of Independence, signed on July 4, 1776, and the American Constitution of 1787.

Greek War of Independence
“Le Massacre de Chios,” by Eugene Delacroix. Credit: Public Domain

March 30, 1822: The Chios Massacre

Greeks from neighboring islands had arrived on Chios and encouraged the Chians to join the national revolt. Several Greek troops from Samos landed on the island and attacked the Turks in the citadel.

Even though many Chians joined the cause, the vast majority of the island’s population did not want to join the revolution.

Nevertheless, the Ottoman rulers responded vengefully to the killing of the soldiers and sent thousands of troops who landed on the island and killed an estimated 42,000 – 52,000 Chians.

The massacre of Chios provoked international outrage and led to increasing support for the Greek cause worldwide.

Greek War of Independence
“Kanaris Burns the Turkish Flagship,” by Nikiforos Lytras. Credit: Public Domain

June 6, 1822: Constantine Kanaris destroys Turkish flagship

At Chios, Greek forces under the command of admiral Constantine Kanaris destroyed the flagship of the Turkish admiral Nasuhzade Ali Pasha (or Kara-Ali Pasha) in retaliation for the Chios Massacre.

While the Turkish admiral was holding a celebration, Kanaris and his men managed to place a fire ship next to it. When the flagship’s powder store caught fire, all the men aboard were instantly killed in the resulting explosion.

The Ottoman casualties were 2,000 men, including both naval officers and common sailors, as well as Kara-Ali himself.

July 26, 1822: The Battle at Dervenakia

The outcome of the victorious Battle at Dervenakia, also known as the Dramalis Massacre, was the destruction of a significant part of the Ottoman forces under General Mahmut Pasha Dramalis.

Coming from Drama in the north of Greece to the Peloponnesian peninsula with 30,000 men, Dramalis (Drama Ali) wanted to take back the city of Tripolitsa. They  took Corinth by storm and moved towards Argolis.

Kolokotronis and his men were positioned in two of the four small mountain passes, called Dervenakia, between Corinth and the Argos valley.

Trapped in the narrow passages, the Ottoman soldiers were soon the prey of the hidden Greeks. The Ottomans counted 2,500-3,000 dead and wounded, while Kolokotronis established his name as a great general in the action.

July 5, 1824: The destruction of Psara

The destruction of Psara was one of the most moving tragedies of the Greek War of Independence, as the Ottomans completely laid waste the civilian population of the island of Psara.

At the time, the entire island’s population was about 7,000. After the massacre, the population of the island never rose over 1,000.

Greek War of Independence
Papaflessas at Maniaki. Credit: Public Domain

May 20, 1825: The fall of Papaflessas at Maniaki

On February 26, 1825, the Egyptian army of Ibrahim Pasha landed undisturbed in Methoni, in the Peloponnese, with 4,000 infantry and 400 cavalry and took over the city’s castle. His plan was to take back the entire Peloponnesian peninsula from the Greeks.

In the following days he was reinforced with more troops and the total number of his infantry reached 15,000. By the end of April he had occupied the strategic castles of Koroni and Pylos (Neokastro).

On May 20, the Greek hero Papaflessas decided to repulse the Egyptians himself. With a force of 3,000 Greeks, Papaflessas marched south to attack Ibrahim. However, half of his men unfortunately deserted when they saw the Egyptian Army approaching.

Ibrahim was leading a force of over 6,000 soldiers. Papaflessas gave an eloquent speech that shored up the morale of the remaining Greeks who had decided to stay and fight.

As the Egyptians attacked, the Greeks bravely held their positions but were eventually overwhelmed. About 1,000 Greeks, including Papaflessas, fell.

The head and body of Papaflessas were recovered and placed upright on a post, as a mark of respect for a valiant foe. Legends say that Ibrahim even kissed Papaflessas’ head and said “If all Greeks were like him, I would not take charge of this campaign.”

June 13, 1825: The victorious Battle at the Lerna Mills

The battle at the Lerna Mills in Argolis, Peloponnese, was one of the most crucial, yet little known, victories of the Greek rebellion.

By early June, the Ibrahim Pasha’s mighty army had beaten Papaflessas’ Greek Army at Maniaki and on June 7 recaptured Tripolitsa, which had been abandoned by the Greeks.

Ibrahim Pasha then sent 5,000 troops to take over Nafplion, the seat of the Greek government.

Yet, somehow, the Greek forces of about 500 men, led by Captain Yannis Makriyannis, Demetrios Ypsilantis, Andreas Metaxas and Konstantinos Mavromichalis, defeated the Egyptian army. This, the first Greek success against Ibrahim, saved the city of Nafplion.

Greek War of Independence
“The Exodus of Missolonghi,” by Theodoros Vryzakis. Credit: Public Domain

April 10, 1826: The heroic exodus and fall of Missolonghi

In April 1825, Reshid Mehmed Pasha received the following order from the Sultan: “Either Missolonghi falls or your head falls.” It would be the third siege of the western Greece city, after two failed attempts.

It was a difficult task to take over the fortified city, which was surrounded by lakes. The brave chieftains Notis Botsaris and Kitsos Tzavellas led the defense of the city with forces comprised of 3,000 men — with several philhellenes among them.

The siege lasted an entire year, with Ibrahim Pasha joining the attack after the first months. Yet, what the vast Egyptian army could not achieve, was in the end achieved by starvation and disease.

The defending captains decided to lead the starving civilians to a heroic exodus, while those who could not follow would stay and defend the city to the death.

When the Greeks charged out of the city gates they were fired upon by Turks and Egyptians. Many panicked and fled back inside the walls while the Ottoman-Egyptian forces had already entered the city, killing, looting and raping.

Of the 7,000 people who attempted to escape, only 1,000 made it to safety. The rest were slaughtered or sold into slavery, with many of the surviving Greek Christian women becoming sex slaves to Egyptian soldiers. In an especially grisly act, the Turks displayed 3,000 severed heads on the walls of the city.

Yet the Missolonghi massacre proved a victory for the Greek cause in the end, and the Ottomans paid dearly for their harsh treatment of Missolonghi. After this atrocity, many Western Europeans felt increased sympathy for the Greek cause.

The horrific event influenced the eventual decision of Britain, France and Russia to intervene militarily in the Battle of Navarino.

Greek War of Independence
“Georgios Karaiskakis,” by Georgios Margariris. Credit: Public Domain

November 18-24, 1826: The Battle of Arachova

The Battle of Arachova brought the name of Georgios Karaiskakis to the forefront, making him one of the most well-known heroes of the Greek Revolution.

The Turkish troops under the command of Mustafa Bey were about to recapture a big part of Roumeli (today’s Central Greece). Yet, after receiving intelligence of the Ottoman army’s manoeuvres, Karaiskakis prepared a surprise attack near the village of Arachova.

On November 18, Mustafa Bey’s 2,000 Ottoman troops were blockaded in Arachova by the Greek Army. An 800-man force that attempted to relieve the defenders three days later failed.

On November 22, Mustafa Bey was mortally wounded and Ottoman morale plunged, as cold weather and heavy rainfall plagued the hunger-stricken defenders.

At midday, on November 24 the Ottomans made an attempt at breaking out. Most were killed in the fighting or perished from the cold. The Greek victory at Arachova gained the rebels valuable time before the Great Powers came to their assistance a year later.

Greek War of Independence
“Battle at Navarino,” by Ambroise Louis Garneray. Credit: Wikipedia/Public Domain

October 20, 1827: The Battle of Navarino seals victory in the Greek War of Independence

On that fateful day, British, French and Russian squadrons entered the harbor at Navarino Bay on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea.

An Ottoman armada which, in addition to imperial warships, included squadrons from Egypt and Tunis, was destroyed by the Allied forces. Virtually the entire Ottoman fleet was decimated, despite the great bravery of the Ottoman crews.

It was to be the last major naval battle in history to be fought entirely with sailing ships, although most ships fought at anchor.

The Allied naval forces essentially put an end to Turkish plans to recapture the parts of Greece they had lost after centuries of rule. The casualties were extremely high and morale was at a low point after that day.

April 26, 1828: Russia declares war on Turkey

The Russo-Turkish War was sparked by the Greek War of Independence, breaking out after the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II closed the Dardanelles to Russian ships and revoked the 1826 Akkerman Convention.

The Turkish move was related to the Greek War of Independence because the closing of the Dardanelles was in retaliation for the Russian participation in the Battle of Navarino. Greeks welcomed the war because the Ottoman troops would be leaving the newly-founded state to fight the Russians.

May 7, 1832: The Treaty of London establishes the state of Greece

The Treaty of London, signed by Britain, France and Russia, established a new Greek state, making Otto of Bavaria the new King of Greece, and defining Greece as an independent kingdom.

Greek Students From Athens to Sydney Celebrate Independence Day

Paula Tsoni
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Greek Students From Athens to Sydney Celebrate Independence Day
Student Parade Greece
1,500 school students paraded at Athens’ Syntagma Square on the eve of Greek Independence Day on Sunday. Credit: AMNA

1,500 school students paraded before officials at Athens’ Syntagma Square on the eve of Greek Independence Day on Sunday in honor of the Greek War for Independence.

229 schools from Athens, from primary to secondary education, took part in this year’s celebratory event. Leading the parade were the high school students of Kalavryta, wearing traditional costumes and carrying a banner of the Greek Revolution.

The students’ parade was joined by the City of Athens Philharmonic Orchestra and music bands of the Hellenic Police, Hellenic Air Force, and the Fire Brigade.

Officials in attendance included Education Minister Kyriakos Pierrakakis and Athens Mayor Charis Doukas, who laid wreaths at the Monument of the Unknown Soldier before the parade.

Minister Pierrakakis commented that the historical day “teaches us how our country and our people can achieve miracles through faith, boldness, and fortitude.”

Athens’ Mayor Doukas cited a Greek Independence fighter Makrygiannis’s memoirs that spoke of serving ‘the We, not the Me,’ for a brighter future with justice and the protection of human rights.

A celebration for all Greeks

Greek Independence Day parade, Athens, 2024.
Greek Independence Day parade, Athens, 2024. Credit: AMNA

A students’ parade attended by hundreds of citizens also took place on Sunday in Thessaloniki.

In faraway Sydney, Greek-Australians celebrated Greek Independence Day with a parade for the first time since the breakout of the Covid-19 pandemic.

Parades in US cities are scheduled for Monday, March 25.

50th anniversary of the restoration of democracy

The anniversary of Greece’s historic declaration of war for independence on March 25 is a celebration of all Greeks that will always draw up a sense of liberation, independence, and justice, Greek President Katerina Sakellaropoulou said in a message on Sunday.

“The Greek uprising against the 400-year Ottoman rule in 1821 garnered the admiration of the world,” she said, stressing that the anniversary also calls for its timeless message, that “passion and self-denial may be the yeast for every national effort, but the guarantee of its success lies with consensus, unity, and agreement, as recorded by the herculean struggle of the heroic revolutionaries against an all-powerful empire”.

President Sakellaropoulou noted that this year marks the 50th anniversary of the restoration of democracy in Greece after the military dictatorship. During this period, Greece became a member of, and established its presence in the European Union, confirming its position among its partners and allies and being a guarantor of security and peace in the eastern Mediterranean and the wider region.

Greece is not forgetting Cyprus, as a part remains under Turkish occupation, she added.

In a world of multiple speeds and uncertainties, consecutive crises, wars, and an environment of divisive speech, where intolerance and totalitarianisms are on the rise, Greece’s challenge today is “to defend, with the contribution of all of us, the ideals of freedom, human rights and democracy, which we secured with struggles and sacrifices in our long existence, as we did our unnegotiable national sovereignty,” the Greek president concluded.

Apple TV Now Offers Ertflix, Greek Public Broadcaster Streamer

Paula Tsoni
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Apple TV Now Offers Ertflix, Greek Public Broadcaster Streamer
Ertflix desktop view
Greek public broadcaster’s OTT streamer Ertflix is now accessible on Apple TV for international viewers to enjoy. Credit: ERTFLIX Website Screen Capture

ERTFLIX, the OTT streaming service of the Greek Broadcasting Corporation (ERT), has become available to international audiences on Apple TV.

The launch is “an important step that brings ERT closer to the diaspora and Greeks around the world,” the Greek public broadcaster says.

Creating an ERTFLIX account to watch on Apple TV allows users to pause and resume watching their favorite programs, while they also have the ability to create their own favorites lists and have access to parental control.

The launch of an international version of ERTFLIX was first announced in October 2023. At the time, ERTFLIX became available on all smart devices, phones, and tablets with iOS, Android or Huawei HarmonyOS operating systems, through browsers, on smart TV apps (Samsung Tizen, LG WebOS, Google Android TV etc.), on Set Top Boxes and on ROKU, with a casting option as well.

International access to TV and radio content from the Greek public broadcaster

“Content for international audiences is constantly enriched and available 24/7 anytime (On Demand), while selected programs are broadcast with Greek and English subtitles,” ERTFLIX’s Apple TV launch announcement reads.

“Users will be able to watch their favorite fiction series, entertainment shows, classic and contemporary Greek short and feature films, documentaries, as well as special selections from ERT’s unique archive,” it adds.

All news programs and bulletins from ERTNEWS, the new 24-hour news channel of public television, are prominently featured on the international version of ERTFLIX, alongside sports broadcasts highlighting matches from various sports and major sporting events.

Besides the rich TV content, radio listeners can tune in to “Voice of Greece,” ERT’s worldwide radio station tailored for Greeks abroad. In addition, specific programs such as an English-language news bulletin and a Greek music show in English cater to those interested in Greek culture and current affairs.

ERT streaming service revolutionized Greek TV

The Greek public broadcaster, ERT, launched its OTT streaming service, ERTFLIX, in April 2020, with the ambition to create “a pillar of culture and entertainment.”

The streamer became an immediate success, featuring ERT’s own shows and productions besides foreign acquisitions that include plenty of international films, fiction series and documentaries.

By August 2020, ERTFLIX had also launched as an app on Android and iPhone.

In December 2023, ERTFLIX premiered its first own drama production, Erimi Chora (Desert Land), an 8-part mini series executive produced by NEEDaFIXER and described as a powerful family drama with “western movie” elements.

Why Orthodox and Catholic Easter Will Never Coincide After 2700

Philip Chrysopoulos
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Why Orthodox and Catholic Easter Will Never Coincide After 2700
catholic orthodox Easter
This year Catholic and Greek-Orthodox Christians, who use different liturgical calendars, celebrate Easter almost one month apart. Credit: JohnKarak,  CC BY-SA 2.0/ flickr

This year, Catholic Christians and Greek Orthodox believers, who use different liturgical calendars, celebrate Easter (Pascha) more than a month apart, with the former being on March 31st and the latter on May 5th.

In 2017, Easter came at the same time for both denominations, something that will happen again in 2025.

However, for purely astronomical reasons, the difference between the celebration of Easter for the two denominations will be getting wider and wider.

As a results of this widening gap, from 2700 onward, the celebration of Easter for the Greek Orthodox Church and the Western Christian churches will never coincide again.

Altogether, in the whole of the 21st century, the celebration of Easter will be held on the same day 31 times, but during every forthcoming century, this will happen more and more rarely.

The last time Easter celebrations will coincide is estimated to be in 2698. From then on, Orthodox and western Christians will never celebrate the Resurrection of Christ together again.

Easter and the Western calendar

palm sunday
Palm Sunday, the triumphal entry into Jerusalem as depicted on a fresco in an Eastern Orthodox church. Credit: /Wikimedia Commons

The First Ecumenical Synod in 325 AD decided that Easter would be celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon of spring.

If this full moon occurs on Sunday, then it will be celebrated on the following Sunday. Thus, Easter would never coincide with Jewish Passover.

At the same time, the celebration of Easter was clearly associated with an astronomical phenomenon, the spring equinox, and the first full moon of spring.

In order to calculate the date of Easter, the date of the first full moon and then the first Sunday after the full moon had to be determined.

The First Ecumenical Synod instructed the Patriarch of Alexandria to inform the other churches of Easter day after the date of the first full moon was calculated with the help of the astronomers in the Egyptian city.

The calendar that was in force at the time of the First Ecumenical Synod was the Julian, which Julius Caesar himself had instituted in 45 BC with the help of the Alexandrian astronomer Sosigenis.

The latter, based on calculations of Hipparchus (who a century prior had estimated with impressive accuracy that the solar year had a duration of 365.242 days), established a calendar with 365 days, and every fourth year (the “leap year”), another day was added.

However, the Julian calendar contained a minor error because the duration of the solar year is in fact 365.242199 days. Every four years, this small error reaches 45 minutes, and every 129 years the minutes add up to a day. As a result, the spring equinox has been arriving earlier and earlier.

Thus, while the spring equinox at the time of Christ occurred on March 23rd, by the year 1582 AD it occurred on March 11th.

At the time, Pope Gregory II instructed astronomers Christoforos Klavios and Luigi Lilios to reform the calendar.

October 5, 1582 was recalculated as October 15, 1582 to correct the error that had accumulated over the past 11 centuries, and the spring equinox returned to March 21st, as it had been during the First Ecumenical Synod.

The new, or Gregorian, calendar was adopted by the Catholic states of Europe in the next five years, and by the Protestants much later.

Due to an even stronger reaction by the Orthodox Church to the Gregorian Calendar, the Julian Calendar remained in force in all Orthodox States until the 20th century.

Greece and the Gregorian calendar

In Greece, the Julian Calendar was finally replaced by the Gregorian on February 16, 1923 with the date changing to March 1st on that day.

That is, 13 days have been removed since 1923, because of the 10-day error between the Gregorian and the Julian calendars since 1582 and another three days for the difference between the adoption of the Gregorian calendar by the West and its adoption by the Greeks three and a half centuries later.

In 1924, the Greek Orthodox Church accepted the ecclesiastical calendar, which would be identical to the civil calendar and would apply to fixed holidays. It would, however, not apply to the Easter celebration or to holidays which are not fixed but are, instead, still calculated on the basis of the Julian or old calendar.

The difference in the celebration of Easter between Orthodox and Western Christians is not only based on the error of the Julian Calendar but also on the error of the so-called “Metonic cycle,” named after Greek astronomer Meton of Athens of the 5th century BC.

The Metonic cycle is a period of close to 19 years, which is almost a common multiple of the solar year and the synodic (lunar) month.

The Metonic cycle was used by the Christian astronomers of Alexandria on the basis of which the Orthodox Church continues to count the dates for future spring full moons.

On the 13 days of the Julian spring equinox, the error of the 19-year Metonic cycle, which from 325 AD to the present time amounts to four to five days, must be added. As a consequence, the Metonic (or Julian) full moon is calculated four to five days later than the actual one.

The Greek Orthodox Church continues to use the Old Julian Calendar and the Metonic cycle to determine the date of Pascha.

Thus, Orthodox Pascha is often celebrated not on the first Sunday after the full moon but on the following full moon or after the second full moon instead of the first Sunday after the first spring full moon, as the Nice Synod had decided.

Catholics and other Christians celebrate Easter according to the rule of the First Ecumenical Synod, but their Spring Equinox and the spring full moon are calculated according to the new Gregorian calendar, also taking into account the Metonic error.

So the Gregorian-Catholic full moon is much closer to the astronomical one (often coinciding or having only one day difference) than the Julian-Orthodox.

It is fairly common for Orthodox and other Christians to celebrate Easter together when both the Gregorian and the Julian-Metonic Easter moon fall from Sunday to Saturday of the same week (as long as it is after April 3rd and two full moons). This would consequently result in Easter celebrations for both Christian denominations on the following Sunday.

However, after 2700, due to the accumulation of the Metonic error for almost seven centuries, the Julian and the Gregorian full moon will never coincide in the same week again, so there will be no common Easter again after this year.

The Greek Orphans of 1821 Revolution and How They Ended Up in the US

Philip Chrysopoulos
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The Greek Orphans of 1821 Revolution and How They Ended Up in the US
Greek Orphans 1821
The Greek Orphans of 1821. Image: The Orphans by Nikolaos Gyzis . Public Domain

The fate of Greek orphans of the 1821 Revolution in the US is but a footnote in the history of the glorious uprising against the Turks. Nonetheless, it is definitely a fascinating one.

What happened to some children who lost their parents during the bloody Greek War of Independence is one of the least known chapters in the big book of Greece’s palingenesis. The unexpected David versus Goliath triumph of the outnumbered Greeks against the Ottoman Empire army has always been the main focus.

However, there is a sub-chapter in the history of the Greek War of Independence regarding the fate of those orphans who were saved by Americans and transferred to the US. Once there, several of them prospered and others became important persons in the New World, creating a long-lasting bond between the two nations.

The story of those children, with some of them escaping death by a hair, others seeing their parents slaughtered by the Turks, others taken slaves and bought back, and then ending up to flourish in America is a story that needs to be told and should not be forgotten.

Iakovos Michailidis is a history professor who undertook the task to research and finally tell the captivating story of those Greek orphans in the book The Greek Orphaned Children of 1821. A Story for Palingenesis and American Philhellenism.

The philhellenism movement

The news that the Greeks revolted against the Ottoman yoke shook the Western world.  Philhellenism in Europe started in the 18th century if not earlier, says historian Thanos Veremis. This was because of the Greek language that was dominant in philosophy and sciences and the ancient Greece legacy inherent in the Parthenon, Homer’s epics, and Phidias’ sculptures among other things. Its cultural influence in enlightened Europe was immense.

By the early 19th century, when British Romantic poet Lord Byron traveled to Greece, he developed a longing for the rich ancient Greek world of great philosophers and brilliant sculptors and poets. At the same time, there was the contradiction of that great legacy being in danger of disappearing under the barbaric Ottoman foot. Byron wrote:

Fair Greece! Sad relic of departed worth!

Immortal, though no more; though fallen, great!

Who now shall lead thy scatter’d children forth,

And long accustom’d bondage uncreate?

When Byron left Greece in 1810, he started a campaign for the liberation of the country in a romantic effort to revive that noble ancient past. Prior to him, German artist Johann Joachim Winckelmann, French author François-René de Chateaubriand, French scholar Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, and others praised the importance of Greece for the West and the need for the country’s liberation from Islamic chains.

German romanticism, French revolutionary radicalism, English intellectual liberalism and the American puritan idealism were the sparks that ignited the fire of Philhellenism across the Western World. Soon, countless people in Europe and the US were willing and ready to help the Greek Cause.

When the first shots of the Greek revolution cracked in Morea in March 1821, influential philhellenes across Europe made a call to arms to young people in their respective countries to help Greece in the war against the Ottomans.

At the same time, philhellenes from the North American continent arrived to help with the struggle. George Jarvis, Jonathan Peckam Miller, and Samuel Gridley Howe emerged as the three most important American philhellenes who actually went to Greece to fight alongside the Greek revolutionaries.

The Greek cause appeal to US philhellenes

As soon as the Greek revolutionaries took over certain key cities in Morea (modern day Peloponnese) in late May 1821, the Messenian Senate of Kalamata, the first “formal Greek government,” appealed to the Americans for support of the Greek cause. It was a petition to the American government and people as a kindred nation that had won its independence fighting and was an exemplar of civil and religious liberty.

The words “Greek cause” spread among the New England elite and soon expanded among the members of the middle and lower classes in the New England states. Soon, politicians, university professors, and congressmen became advocates of the support to the rebelling Greeks who were determined “to live free or die.” Furthermore, the petition was publicized and copies circulated among US elite and eventually among all Americans of the northeastern states.

The Greeks’ fight for freedom spoke to the Americans’ spirit of liberalism. The US government, however, was reluctant to openly support and fund the Greek freedom fighters as a trade agreement with the Ottoman Empire was scheduled to be signed in 1823. That fact led to the US government’s delaying help. It was common Americans who became philhellenes, though, as they were enthused by the Greeks’ great stand against further oppression, their fight for their religious beliefs, and their great heritage.

The first fundraising campaign was meant to fund the military needs of the revolutionaries, along with forty thousand pounds in donations. It was significant help for the Greek fighters during the war. The fundraising campaign, after 1826, was mostly relief aid, accomplished in the name of humanitarianism and was the work of pure charity, non-political and neutral. During 1827 and 1828, eight shiploads of relief supplies, valued at nearly $140,000, were sent to Greece consisting entirely of food and clothing.

Along with philhellenism, it was protestant missionaries who aspired to spreading Protestantism in the Near East, Greece, and the Balkans. In the context of religious expansionism, people of all Protestant denominations cooperated with philhellene laymen, many of whom were protestants as well. They also cooperated with the network of European protestants who were willing to help the enslaved Greeks and proselytize them along the way. Protestant missionaries arrived in Smyrna in 1820. They were interested in pressing books of their faith in the Greek language.

The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), a semi-religious, semi-political organization, was one of the most influential in the United States at the time. In 1823, the organization launched an enterprise of educating young boys from other parts of the world. Levi Parsons and Joel Fisk were two of the first missionaries to promote this acculturation plan by taking several Greek orphans to the United States. Researchers do not agree on the exact number of children who were finally taken or sent to the United States from 1823 to 1828 under the auspices of this program. However, there is evidence that 36 reached the United States and were educated there.

A humanitarian crisis amidst a bloody war

In 1822, the Ottomans committed two major massacres, one on Chios and the other in Naousa in Northern Greece. In early 1824 were the catastrophes of the islands of Kasos and Psara. Surviving children of those catastrophes were lucky to be taken care of by American philhellenes and the American Navy patrolling the Mediterranean. From there, they were transported to the US.

Another wave of orphaned Greek children that was saved by the Americans was seen between 1826 and 1828 after the Missolonghi exodus.

Thousands of orphaned children ended up wandering around Greece during the Greek War of Independence. Many of them were ill, starving, freezing from the cold, destitute, and begging for something to eat. They roamed in groups like packs of feral children in Morea and Roumeli (modern day Central Greece).

There is no record, of course, of what happened to those kids. Some of them survived, hiding in mountains and forests, while others found refuge in villages the Turks could not locate or did not bother destroying.

The lucky ones were saved and taken to the United States, either by protestant missionaries and philhellenes or by the American Navy patrolling the Aegean Sea.

Transferring the Greek orphans to the US

In an earlier interview with the Athens-Macedonian News Agency (AMNA), the author of the book on the 1821 revolution orphans, Iakovos Michailidis, said there were about 40 such orphans but that the number could not be confirmed. He stressed, however, that the number of them is of little importance. What is important, Michailidis said, was the motivation for their being saved and the outcome of the transfer of the Greek orphans to US soil.

Michailidis pointed out that in all revolutions, including the one of Greece, historians are not only interested in the big issues, such as those related to military operations, political and diplomatic developments, casualties, and so on. Lesser issues, mainly social in nature, which perhaps affect people much more than the larger issues, are also of interest.

One such example was that of the Greek orphans of 1821. In that respect, the author said, their transfer to the US was perhaps the most sensitive moment in the history of American philhellenism.

Several of these orphans, helpless and unprotected, would probably have lost their lives if they had not come across the American philanthropists, such as Boston doctor Samuel Gridley Howe, who traveled to Greece to aid the rebels.

Michailidis refuted the argument that the protestant missionaries saved the orphans in order to convert them to Protestantism. Even though their actions were partly due to the overall conversion program to spread their own religious doctrine and facilitate the religious/political agenda of the ABCFM, it was secondary to the magnitude of the atrocities committed by the Turks and the danger to the orphans.

The transfer of Greek orphans to the US during the Greek War of Independence took place in two waves. The first was mainly during the first two years of the uprising (1821-1822), when the Chios massacre and the Naousa holocaust took place, while the second was in 1824, which was when the Psara massacre occurred.

On Chios in 1822, 42,000 people were massacred, and 52,000 were sold as slaves. In the northern city of Naousa, 5,000 women and children were killed in addition to an equal number of men. In Psara, 18,000 islanders were killed or sold to the slave markets. These barbaric catastrophes left behind many Greek orphans, some of them lucky to survive and later be transported to America.

Prior to the Chios massacre, a network of American missionaries who were mostly in Smyrna visited the island, often trying to promote Protestantism. They got to know many locals and ran a school on Chios. Hence, after the massacre, many of these children who either escaped to Smyrna or were sold in the slave market of Smyrna, were recovered by American missionaries and traders who were in the area and were transferred to the United States.

The second way the Greek orphans escaped death or slavery was through the US fleet. During the Greek uprising, American ships sailed in the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean, mainly fighting piracy. These ships were found outside Psara shortly after the destruction of the island in 1824 and literally collected quite a few children from the water. Their parents had thrown them into the sea to save them from the Turks. The parents who stayed on land were slaughtered.

The third route was through official philanthropy channels in Greece after 1826, when the country was literally in ruins. US philhellenes sent aid to Greece, and other Americans who were already there distributed the aid throughout Greece. On their way, they met many orphaned children and sent them to the United States.

Liberation and Kapodistrias

When Ioannis Kapodistrias was appointed the first governor of Greece, he arrived in Nafplion on January 7, 1828. The Greek War of Independence was not yet over, and Turkish forces were still scattered throughout the country while cities and towns were in shambles.

Kapodistrias, however, managed to introduce many reforms in order to make Greece a modern state. Regarding the issue of the orphans, he showed great concern. He wanted them to remain under the wings of the new Greek state that was “under construction.” To that effect, he tried to raise money to build an orphanage on the island of Aegina to shelter those children.

King Charles 10th of France, a philhellene and admirer of Kapodistrias’ abilities, sent people in the slave markets in Beirut, Lebanon, where the Ottomans were selling their slaves, and bought a large number of enslaved Greek children to offer them as a gift to Greece’s new governor for the Aegina orphanage.

The orphanage building in Aegina was ready in June 1829, and five hundred orphans were accommodated immediately. The institute incorporated an elementary school, a school for advanced studies, and classes offering technical lessons such as carpentry, ironworks, and printing press among others. The only problem was that the orphanage was for boys, but there was no providence for housing girls.

Greek orphans flourish in the US

The Greek orphans who were taken to the New World received great care. Due to the widespread philhellenic wave throughout the country, these refugee children were given access to the highest levels of American society, the finest schools, and became instant celebrities. Additionally, all who remained in the US were always proud of their prestigious Greek identity and passed this on to their children.

The personal stories of Greek orphans who initially escaped from fields of battles and torched villages and subsequently traveled to the US were fascinating, as most of them had a good and productive life. Their stories have great sociological significance.

Grigorios Perdikaris, from Naousa, who escaped the massacre, came into contact with the American missionaries, studied at the best universities, joined the circle of the great American writer Edgar Allan Poe and was then appointed as the first American consul in Athens during the reign of King Otto. His son, Ionas, who continued the family tradition, was at some point in Tangier, at the beginning of the 19th century. At this time, he was kidnapped by local bandits and almost caused a diplomatic incident, since the 6th Fleet had to be sent there to free him. His story, in fact, was made into a Hollywood movie starring Sean Connery.

Little Garyfalia Michalbei, who was enslaved during the Psara massacre and recovered by American missionaries and later adopted by a Boston family, became symbolic of anti-slavery. Her life was a source of inspiration for many artists, and the great American sculptor Hiram Powers created the sculpture “The Greek Slave.” In just a few years, the short life of an orphaned Greek girl and her struggle for freedom became synonymous with the struggle of African American slaves in the United States.

Ioannis Celivergos Zachos, whose father was killed in the Greek War of Independence and was given to Samuel Gridley Howe by his mother, was taken to the US, where he became a literary scholar, elocutionist, author, lecturer, inventor, and educational pioneer. He was also an early proponent of equal education rights for African Americans and women.

Evangelinos Apostolides Sophocles, brought to America in 1828, distinguished himself as professor at Harvard University for 41 years and went on to make the greatest contributions to modern Greek studies at Harvard University and in the United States. When he died in 1883, he left his personal library and his entire estate to Harvard University. Under his aegis, Harvard became a world center for the study of Modern Greek. Professor Sophocles wrote the first Modern Greek grammar book and first Modern Greek lexicon but also a Byzantine dictionary.

Georgios Sarigiannis (or George Sirian for Americans) was put in a US Navy boat by his mother at age six during the Psara massacre. For fifty years, he served the US Navy and became a decorated Gunner. In memory of George Sirian, a special ceremony is held every year in Boston by the US Navy, and an award has been established in his name. The recognition is given every year to the best gunner of the US fleet. His oldest son, Constantine Ambrose Sirian, became a US Navy chief.

George Colvocoresses had been enslaved after the Chios massacre, during which most of his family was killed. He was purchased and freed by his father who sent him to America. Once there, he was supported by Allen Partridge, the head of a military school in Norwich, Vermont, and upon graduation, he joined the navy where he served with distinction. One of his most noteworthy voyages was on the scientific expedition of the USS Porpoise which toured the world and explored and first named Antarctica. His book about the expedition was extremely popular.

Lucas Miltiades Miller, born in Livadia, was the first elected Greek-American in the House of Representatives (Wisconsin’s 6th District). He became an orphan at the age of four, at which time, he was adopted by abolitionist Jonathan Peckham Miller, an American who served as a colonel in the Greek Army during the Greek War of Independence. He was given the name Lucas Miltiades Miller by his adopted father, his birth name being lost in the war.

All of these individuals were orphaned Greek children of the 1821 revolution. Through their personal stories, they highlight one of the most moving social aspects of the Greek uprising: the story of a group of Greek children—the majority of them orphans—who, in a way that sounds almost like a fairytale, escaped from great danger and found a New World where they excelled in life.

A great legacy for Greek-American relations

The Greek orphans of the 1821 revolution in the United States evolved into connecting links between two nations—Greece and the US. The orphans forged the Greek-American relations from the 19th century to the present day. American philhellenism is continuous in the two centuries of the modern Greek state.

A century after the Greek War of Independence, American philhellenism was active once again during the Asia Minor Catastrophe. The great humanitarian drama in Greek history re-mobilized the philanthropic feelings of American individuals and organizations. The American Near East Foundation (Near East Relief) was one of the first international organizations that rushed to Anatolia to help the Greek and Armenian refugees. Through its actions, thousands of refugees found relief and care.

Again, thousands of orphaned Greek children who had lost one or both of their parents during the Turkish purges found shelter under the wings of the Near East Relief. Some were settled in orphanages in Greece, while others were transferred to the United States as a repetition—on a larger scale—of the 1821 revolution orphan transplant.

Catholic Church vs. Orthodox Church: The Main Differences

Alexander Gale
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Catholic Church vs. Orthodox Church: The Main Differences
Christ Pantokrator
Byzantine-style mosaic of Christ Pantokrator in the Cefalù Cathedral, erected by Roger II in 1131. Credit: Gun Powder Ma / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 3.0

Christianity is the world’s largest religion, with an estimated 2.382 billion followers across the globe. However, the Church is hardly a unified body and there exist several Christian denominations with diverse practices, beliefs, and doctrines.

One of the most prominent divisions is between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, also often referred to as the Western and Eastern Churches. Catholic and Orthodox Christians have remained distinct denominations since the Great Schism in 1054.

Today, Catholic and Orthodox Christians can be distinguished for their differing views on theology, aesthetics, religious practices, and doctrines. Even within these denominations there is a broad spectrum of different approaches to Christianity, further widening the diversity of the practice of the Christian faith.

The Great Schism

The theological divide between Orthodox and Catholic Christians has its roots in the Great Schism, also known as the East-West Schism, which tore apart the Christian Church in 1054. There were several causes for this split, which had been compounding over the centuries.

One of the foremost reasons for the Great Schism was the increasingly entrenched theological disagreements between the Eastern and Western Churches. The clergy disagreed over beliefs surrounding the Filioque, the use of leavened or unleavened bread in the Eucharist, the role of icons in worship, and the proper role of the pope.

Concerning that latter point, the question of the papal supremacy was as much a point of political disagreement as it was theological. It concerned not only the power structures within the Church, but also impacted the wider international political environment, since Medieval European rulers derived a significant degree of authority and legitimacy from their relationship with the Church.

The Filioque Controversy

The Filioque Controversy is a major point of disagreement between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches, which has contributed to the schism between them since the 11th century.

The Catholic Church teaches that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son (Filioque), as expressed in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed as it is used in the Latin Church. This doctrine was first included in the Creed by the Third Council of Toledo in 589 AD, and it was later officially adopted by the Western Church in the 11th century. The Catholic Church justifies this addition by arguing that it clarifies the relationship between the Trinity’s persons, showing that the Son is fully divine and equal to the Father.

On the other hand, the Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone, as expressed in the original version of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed. The Eastern Church claims that the Filioque addition was made without the approval of the Eastern Church, and it violates the principle of the consensual decision-making that should guide the Church’s doctrine.

From an Orthodox perspective, the addition of the Filioque clause was a unilateral act by the Western Church that departed from the original faith of the undivided Church. Orthodox theologians argue that the filioque clause implies that the Son has a separate identity and power, which undermines the Trinitarian doctrine of the unity and equality of the three persons of the Holy Trinity.

Some Catholic theologians argue that the Filioque does not actually contradict the Orthodox belief in the Father’s role as the source of the Holy Spirit, and that it only emphasizes the unity and equality of the three persons of the Holy Trinity. However, the Orthodox Church insists that the addition of the Filioque has created a theological obstacle to the reunion of the two Churches.

Purgatory

Another point of difference between Orthodox and Catholic theology is the belief in purgatory. Catholics believe that purgatory is a place or state of being where sinful but repentant souls are cleansed and purified before entering heaven; further purification can be granted by the prayers and offerings of the living.

During a meeting between Catholic and Byzantine Orthodox clergymen in the 15th century, the Catholic Bishop Julian described purgatory to his Orthodox peers thus: “The souls of those who after their baptism have sinned, but have afterwards sincerely repented and confessed their sins, though unable to perform the epitimia laid upon them by their spiritual father, or bring forth fruits of repentance sufficient to atone for their sins, these souls are purified by the fire of purgatory, some sooner, others slower, according to their sins; and then, after their purification, depart for the land of eternal bliss. The prayers of the priest, liturgies, and deeds of charity conduce much to their purification.”

Orthodox Christians do not believe in purgatory. There is heaven and hell, as in the Catholic faith, but there is no space in-between dedicated to the purification of sinful souls.

Beliefs about the Virgin Mary and the Immaculate Conception

Although both Orthodox and Catholic Christians hold Mary, the mother of Jesus, in high esteem, their beliefs about the Virgin Mother diverge in a number of areas.

Catholic doctrine teaches that Mary was conceived without original sin and remained sinless throughout her life. This doctrine is known as the Immaculate Conception and was made an official dogma of the Catholic Church by Pope Pius IX in 1854.

In contrast, the Orthodox Church rejects this dogma, and instead asserts that only Christ was born without sin. Although the Theotokos (Mother of the Lord) is the most revered saint in the Orthodox cannon, Orthodox Christians believe that she was conceived and born in a state of sin since she is a human being.

The two denominations also differ on their beliefs on the nature of Mary’s passing.

Catholic theology teaches that Mary was assumed into heaven because of her unique role in the salvation of humanity as the Mother of God. As a result, Mary’s assumption is seen as a confirmation of her role as the New Eve, who through her obedience to God’s will, helped to undo the effects of the fall of the first Eve.

In contrast, Orthodox Christianity teaches the Dormition of the Theotokos, which is the belief that Mary fell asleep in the Lord and was then was bodily assumed into heaven by her Son. The term “dormition” means “falling asleep” and emphasizes the peaceful and natural death of Mary, which is seen as a contrast to the death of sin that all humans experience.

Papal supremacy

The role of the Pope is another significant theological difference between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. While the Catholic Church recognizes the Pope as the Vicar of Christ and the head of the Church, the Orthodox Church rejects the primacy of the Pope and emphasizes the conciliar nature of the Church, where all bishops are equal in authority.

According to Catholic doctrine, the Pope is the successor of Saint Peter and has supreme authority over the universal Church, including the power to define doctrine and make infallible statements on matters of faith and morals. In contrast, the Orthodox Church sees the Pope as a bishop with a primacy of honor, but not of jurisdiction. Instead, the Orthodox Church is organized around a network of autocephalous (self-governing) churches, each with its own bishops and councils, but united in faith and doctrine.

From an Orthodox perspective, the Catholic Church’s understanding of the Pope’s authority is a departure from the Church’s traditional model of conciliarity, where decisions are made by councils of bishops rather than by a single authority figure. Orthodox theologians argue that the Pope’s authority as defined by the Catholic Church undermines the collegiality of bishops and the unity of the Church. Additionally, Orthodox theologians see the Pope’s claim to universal jurisdiction as an obstacle to reunion between the two Churches.

Catholic theologians, on the other hand, argue that the Pope’s authority is grounded in the primacy of Peter, as recognized by the early Church. They contend that the Pope’s role as a unifying figure and the ultimate authority in matters of faith and morals is necessary for maintaining the unity of the Church.

Iconography, statues, and aesthetics

The Orthodox Church sees the veneration of icons as a continuation of the biblical and apostolic tradition of honoring holy figures and sacred objects. Orthodox theology views icons as windows into the spiritual realm, allowing the faithful to connect with the divine and the saints. Icons are believed to be imbued with divine grace and power, and the veneration of icons is seen as an act of worship, not idolatry.

In contrast, the Catholic Church has historically been more cautious about the use of images in worship, particularly in the aftermath of the Iconoclastic Controversy in the 8th and 9th centuries. While the Catholic Church recognizes the importance of religious images in fostering devotion, it also emphasizes the importance of avoiding any hint of idolatry or superstitious practices. The Catholic Church does not encourage the veneration of icons in the same way as the Orthodox Church, although it does allow for the use of images in worship.

Regarding the use of statues and sculptures in churches, the reverse is generally true, with the Catholic Church having a greater preference for this type of artistic expression than the Orthodox Church.

Statues of Jesus, Mary, and the saints are often placed in Catholic churches and chapels, and are used as focal points for prayer and meditation. Catholics draw an important distinction between the worship of statues, which is forbidden and viewed as idolatry, versus the use of statuary in a broader religious context, which Catholic theologians say is actually commanded by God.

The Eucharist

The Eucharist, often referred to as the Divine Liturgy by the Orthodox Church and as the Holy Communion by the Catholic Church, is an importance practice for both denominations. However, there are notable differences in their approaches to the Eucharist.

In the Catholic Church, the bread used in the Eucharist is typically unleavened, and is consecrated by the priest during the Mass using a specific set of prayers and rituals. The Catholic Church also teaches the doctrine of transubstantiation, which holds that during the consecration, the bread and wine are transformed into the actual body and blood of Christ.

In contrast, the Orthodox Church typically uses leavened bread in the Eucharist, and the preparation and consecration of the elements are accompanied by specific prayers and rituals that are somewhat different from those used in the Catholic Church. The Orthodox Church also rejects the doctrine of transubstantiation, and instead teaches the doctrine of trans-elementation or metousiosis, which holds that the bread and wine are transformed in a mysterious way into the body and blood of Christ, while retaining their outward form.

Baptism

Both the Catholic and Orthodox Churches view baptism as the first important milestone in a Christian’s life. However, there are some differences in the ceremonial proceedings.

The most visible difference between Orthodox and Catholic baptisms is the mode of baptism. The Orthodox Church generally baptizes by full immersion in water, while the Catholic Church usually baptizes by pouring water over the head of the person being baptized.

Both Orthodox and Catholic baptisms involve the use of holy oil, or chrism, which is blessed by the bishop. However, the way in which chrism is used differs between the two traditions. In the Orthodox Church, chrism is applied to the whole body of the person being baptized, as a sign of their incorporation into the Church. In the Catholic Church, chrism is usually applied only to the forehead, as a sign of the sealing of the Holy Spirit.

The role of saints

Saints play an important role in the religious practices of both churches. However, yet again, there are important differences and distinctions. Regarding the relationship between a believer and the saints, Orthodox believers emphasize synergy, whereas Catholics favor intercession.

In Orthodox Christianity, the concept of synergy is central to the idea of the works and dignity of the saints. Synergy means that the individual believer cooperates with the grace of God, and works in partnership with the saint to achieve spiritual growth. This idea of synergy emphasizes the active role of the believer in the process of spiritual growth, and sees the saint as a partner rather than a mediator.

For example, in Orthodox Christianity, when a believer asks a saint for intercession, it is not simply a matter of asking the saint to pray for them, but also of seeking to imitate the saint’s virtues and learn from their example. The believer is called to participate actively in the life and works of the saint, striving to emulate their virtues and attain spiritual growth.

In contrast, in Catholic Christianity, the emphasis is more on the idea of intercession, in which the saint is seen as a mediator between the individual believer and God. While Catholics also recognize the importance of imitating the virtues of the saints, the idea of synergy is not as prominent in Catholic theology.

Differences in appearance between Catholic and Orthodox priests

One very noticeable difference between the denominations is in the appearance of the priests. Specifically, Orthodox priests wear long hair and beards, whereas Catholic clergymen tend to be cleanshaven with shorter hair.

There are several reasons for this differentiation in appearance and there are passages in the Bible which have received different interpretations on the matter of long hair and beards.

For example, the New Testament passage in which Saint Paul writes to the Corinthians, urges followers “Doth not even nature itself teach you, that if a man have long hair, it is a shame unto him? (I Cor. 11:14), which would seemingly support the Catholic preference for shorter hair.

On the other hand, the Orthodox preference for a beard and long hair appears to be supported by a passage in the Book of Leviticus, which states “And ye shall not shave your head for the dead (a pagan practice) with a baldness on the top; and they shall not shave their beard… (Leviticus 21:5), and to all men in general, Ye shall not make a round cutting of the hair of your head, nor disfigure your beard (Lev. 19:27).

Priesthood and marriage

Another interesting area of difference between Orthodox and Catholic doctrine concerns the permissibility of marriage within the priesthood.

The Orthodox Church generally allows for married men to be ordained as deacons and priests. However, Bishops are chosen from the monastic ranks and must remain unmarried and celibate. The marriage of priests who have already been ordained is also not allowed.

The Catholic position is generally much stricter. Although certain exemptions exist, all Catholic priests are expected to be celibate and unmarried.

Could the Orthodox and Catholic Churches ever unite?

Over the centuries, there have been many attempts to reunite the two Churches, although these have ultimately all failed.

The main issue is that of papal primacy. The Orthodox Church is unlikely to accept the authority of the Pope, as this would be seen as a compromise of their beliefs. Similarly, the Catholic Church is unlikely to give up the authority of the Pope, as this is a fundamental part of their doctrine.

Nevertheless, this has not prevented friendly bilateral relations between the two Churches. For example, Pope Francis recently donated three fragments of the Parthenon from the Vatican Museums to Greece, as a gesture of goodwill towards Ieronymos II, the Archbishop of Athens.

Kelly Vlahakis-Hanks Honored by US Congress as Woman of Distinction

Paula Tsoni
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Kelly Vlahakis-Hanks Honored by US Congress as Woman of Distinction
Kelly Vlahakis-Hanks receiving Award by the US congress, 2024
Kelly Vlahakis-Hanks, President and CEO of ECOS®, was honored by the US congress with the 2024 Woman of Distinction Award. Credit: Ecos handout

The Greek-American President and CEO of ECOS, Kelly Vlahakis-Hanks, was honored by the US congress with the 2024 Woman of Distinction Award for California’s 45th District.

“As the president and CEO of ECOS plant-powered laundry detergents and cleaning products, Kelly Vlahakis-Hanks is passionate about human and planetary health. She’s widely recognized for her highly effective leadership at ECOS and her influential voice in corporate social responsibility, safer chemistry, and sustainable manufacturing,” the award announcement read.

This is not the first time that the Greek-American business leader and environmentalist is honored for standing out as an inspirational female role model.

On International Women’s Day 2020, she was among the honorees at the National Women’s History Museum (NWHM) receiving the annual “Women Making History Award” which honors a select group of people who have made significant contributions in their field and serve as an inspiration to women everywhere.

ECOS has been a winner of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Safer Choice Partner of the Year Award for several years, recognizing the company’s commitment to safer ingredients and innovative green science, and is also a member of Business for a Fair Minimum Wage.

Kelly Vlahakis-Hanks inspiring women in leadership roles

“So honored to be recognized by the United States Congress, House of Representatives, with the 2024 Woman of Distinction Award for empowering, uplifting and encouraging our next generation of women leaders!” Vlahakis-Hanks commented on her most recent award.

“As a woman-owned business with more than 50% of our C-Suite and more than 65% of our Technical and R&D teams composed of women, we’re committed to closing the dream gap and making sure women achieve greater representation in STEM and leadership roles,” she stated.

Kelly Vlahakis- Hanks (R) with colleague Amber Enriquez, Congress Award 2024
Kelly Vlahakis- Hanks (R) with colleague Amber Enriquez. Credit: Ecos handout

Rep. Michelle Steel solicited nominations for the award directly from members of the Southern California community and presented the awards to a total twenty-one Women of Distinction at a ceremony in Hawaiian Gardens on March 18.

“March is Women’s History Month, and as we celebrate the contributions of women throughout history, I’m so glad to be able to honor some of the amazing women right here in California’s 45th District,” said Rep. Steel.

“From healthcare and education to public safety and philanthropy, this year’s honorees represent the best of their fields and the best of our communities. On behalf of all Southern Californians, I want to thank and commend this year’s Women of Distinction for all they’ve done and continue to do to build their own American Dream and give back to their friends, families, and neighbors.”

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