Fortified Settlements Containing Ancient Open-Air Temples Found in Turkey

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Masumu-Pak Fortress Open Air Temple, one of the newly discovered fortified settlements
A new archaeological discovery in Turkey reveals fortified settlements housing ancient open-air temples in the Eastern Anatolia Region. Credit: Pamukkale University Social Sciences Institute Journal

In Tunceli province, in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, researchers found two forts and two 7th century BC new open-air temples.

This discovery is part of the Iron Age and Hellenistic (Greek) Age Tunceli Survey project. Experts have been exploring Tunceli since 2016.

Recent archaeological efforts have led to the discovery of a new site, the Masumu-Pak Fortress, alongside a detailed examination of certain aspects of the already-known Aşağı Doluca Fortress.

The findings, including the two fortress settlements and two open-air temples, got published in the 61st issue of the Pamukkale University Social Sciences Institute Journal.

A new type of temple not known before

Associate Professor Serkan Erdoğan pointed out that one of the newly found fortress settlements sits in the far east of present-day Tunceli province, while the other lies almost at its western edge.

He mentioned that the two fortress settlements called Lower Harik (Doluca) in the southeast Anatolian region contained a new type of temple that they hadn’t seen previously.

“The two fortress settlements, one named Masumu-Pak fortress located in the Hozat-Çemişgezek -Ovacık triangle and the other named Aşağı Harik (Doluca), located on the banks of the Peri Çayı (Peri stream) east of Nazımiye in the southeastern Anatolian region host a new type of temple that we have not known before,” he stated.

Researchers observed that while the Lower Doluca Fortress shows strong signs of the Iron Age, both the Iron Age and Medieval structures are present in the Masumu-Pak Fortress.

They discovered that the open-air temples in Lower Doluca Fortress and Masumu-Pak Fortress have similar shapes and construction styles.

The key similarity between these outdoor prayer areas in both settlements is the architectural feature resembling an altar carved into the rocks, accompanied by a platform in front of it, as reported by Arkeonews.

Open-Air temples date back to the 7th century BC

The researchers revealed that the temples date back to around the 7th century BC, a time when the Urartians had control over the region.

It’s still uncertain whether these temples, with their unique features, were constructed for local deities or for the worship of well-known gods of that era.

Serkan Erdoğan mentioned that the Lower Harik Castle and Temple, situated in the current castle hamlet settlement, is also recognized as a sacred site called Moro Sur (Red Snake). Today, those seeking healing still invoke ‘Ya Moro Sur, Tu esta (You exist, Moro Sur),’ as a tradition.

Erdoğan highlighted that the snake symbol is deeply rooted in the region’s geography. He noted that the Moresur myth possesses a unique and genuine structure, with the area’s history as a sacred site tracing back to ancient times.

The Ferocious Wars of Alexander the Great’s Successors After His Death

A map of the Diadochi, who fought over and carved up Alexander's empire into several kingdoms after his death, a legacy which reigned on and continued the influence of ancient Greek culture abroad for over 300 more years. This map depicts the kingdoms of the Diadochi c. 301 BC, after the Battle of Ipsus.
The Successors fought over and carved up Alexander the Great’s empire into several kingdoms after his death, a legacy which reigned on and continued the influence of ancient Greek culture abroad for over three hundred more years. This map depicts the kingdoms of the Successors c. 301 BC after the Battle of Ipsus. Credit: Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd 1911. Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0

The Wars of the Diadochi, or the Wars of Alexander’s Successors, were a series of conflicts that erupted among the generals of Alexander the Great. These were known as the Diadochi, which means “heirs” in Greek. These wars took place over who would inherit the vast empire Alexander left behind upon his death in 323 BC.

The historically significant conflicts, which spanned over four decades from 322 to 281 BC, were profound struggles for power, legacy, and the right to be seen as the legitimate heir to one of history’s largest empires. This means these civil war-like conflicts were not merely battles for territory of financial gains. The Diadochi, once united under the Macedonian sun of Alexander’s banner, turned against each other in a bid to control the vast empire. The empire stretched from the Adriatic and Ionian Sea in Europe to the borders of India.

Thus, this period marked the beginning of the Hellenistic era. It was a time when Greek culture spread across and influenced a vast portion of an ancient world once dominated by the mighty Persian Empire. The outcome of these wars led to the division of Alexander’s empire into several, smaller Hellenistic kingdoms. Each one of them was ruled by one of his former generals. This fundamentally changed the political landscape of the ancient Near East and the Mediterranean with profound consequences for centuries to come.

An AI depiction of Alexander the Great and his horse, Bucephalus.
An AI depiction of Alexander the Great and his horse, Bucephalus. Credit: MidJourney for the Greek Reporter.

The Successors’ bid for Alexander’s empire

The sudden death of Alexander the Great in Babylon left his empire without a clear successor. His generals, the Diadochi, were not prepared for such an eventuality. Initially, they attempted to govern the empire through a collective regency. However, this fragile arrangement quickly disintegrated due to personal ambitions and deep-seated rivalries amongst themselves.

The Partition of Babylon in 323 BC was meant to divide the empire among the most powerful generals. Unfortunately, however, this only managed to formalize the divisions and set the stage for the conflicts that were about to follow.

The immediate aftermath of Alexander’s death turned the empire’s vast territories into a luxurious and sought-after product that was about to go on sale. For the generals of Alexander, everything was now up for grabs. Each one of them seeks to carve out their own realm and enjoy the privileges of power.

Alexander’s son, Alexander IV, was still an infant, and his brother, Philip III Arrhidaeus, was considered unfit to rule. Hence, the lack of a universally recognized heir complicated the succession even further. This power vacuum led to a series of short-lived alliances and betrayals. The Diadochi were now ready for position and territory in what would turn into a series of wars in which Greeks would fight Greeks for power and status.

The World History Encyclopedia notes that, although the initial division of the empire was meant to be a temporary solution, it very quickly unraveled. This led to the first of many wars, as the generals broke their fragile alliances in pursuit of greater power.

Alexander the Great and Craterus in a lion hunt, mosaic from Pella, Greece, late 4th century BC
Alexander the Great and Craterus in a lion hunt, mosaic from Pella, Greece, late 4th century BC. Credit: Archaeological Museum of Pella, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Alexander’s Successors wars explained

The Wars of the Diadochi did not happen overnight. They were fought in several phases, each marked by shifting alliances, royal drama, and a series of smaller battles that reshaped the territories under each general’s control.

The First War of the Diadochi set the precedent for the conflicts that would follow. In these wars, key figures such as Ptolemy, Antigonus, Cassander, and Seleucus emerged as the principal players in this deadly game of thrones. The Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC was one of the most decisive confrontations. It resulted in the death of Antigonus and a significant realignment of power among the Diadochi.

The complexity of these wars cannot be overstated. Each phase saw the Diadochi use a mix of military and strategic might, careful diplomacy, and treachery to gain the upper hand. Heritage History highlights the second war of the Diadochi. This began in 318 BC, when Antigonus, the Strategos—Greek for Commander—of Asia, moved to assert his dominance over the territories in Asia Minor and the eastern provinces.

The conflict was the beginning of decades of warfare. During this period, the Diadochi and their successors fought over what was left of the once massive empire of Alexander. These wars were also characterised by their brutality and the often shifting fortunes of the combatants. With each victory or defeat, these battles would reshape the political landscape of the entire Hellenistic world.

The cultural and economic links of the Hellenistic kingdoms

As one can imagine, the Wars of the Diadochi had profound implications for the cohesion of Alexander the Great’s empire. The relentless conflicts among his former generals led to the gradual disintegration of the unity of the empire. As a result, separate, smaller and weaker Hellenistic kingdoms emerged.

However, although they were politically divided, these entities continued to be linked culturally and economically. This happened as Greek education, language, and traditions continued to spread throughout the regions. The Hellenistic period was characterized by a remarkable synthesis of Greek as well as local cultures, leading to advancements in art, science, and philosophy. Despite the constant wars, these kingdoms were a melting pot of a new, emerging Hellenistic identity that combined different customs and traditions.

Greek education, or paideia, became the focal point of Hellenistic society. It managed to preserve the sense of “Greekness” even after it was influenced by non-Greek cultures. This educational focal point, which included the promotion of philosophy, politics, arts, and physical training in local schools, was not only a means of cultural progress. It became a tool for social cohesion among the Greek-speaking elite, offering a much-needed sense of unity.

The Greek language became the lingua franca of the Hellenistic world. It facilitated trade and communication across vast distances, offering a common way of expression to millions of people. The spread of Hellenism also had a significant impact on trade. The interconnectedness of the Hellenistic kingdoms facilitated an increase in the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies. This era also saw the establishment of new trade routes that extended from the Mediterranean all the way to India and Central Asia. These routes would endure for centuries, connecting the Roman Empire with the East.

Paintings of ancient Macedonian soldiers, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century BC
Paintings of ancient Macedonian soldiers, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century BC. Credit: Ancient painters of Rome Italy, Pinterest, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Speculations on Alexander the Great’s untimely death

One cannot help but speculate on what might have happened if Alexander had not died young. It’s possible that the empire would have maintained its unity for a longer period. Alexander’s vision of a truly multicultural society, in which conquered peoples were integrated and Hellenistic ideas were adopted alongside local customs, might have led to a more stable and cohesive empire.

The early death of Alexander left his empire without the strong leadership it needed. The empire could no longer continue on with his policies of cultural integration and expansion. This led to detrimental consequences for its cohesion. As a result, the empire fractured. However, the spread of Hellenistic culture continued on, shaping the ancient world in ways that would be visible even to this day.

In conclusion, the Wars of the Diadochi did break Alexander’s empire into pieces. However, this fragmentation also facilitated the spread of Greek culture as well as Greek education across the then-known world.

The Hellenistic kingdoms that emerged from these wars became the epicenters for a new, cosmopolitan culture. This culture blended Greek and local elements, leaving a legacy that would influence subsequent generations to this day.

Scientists Solve 20,000-Year Mystery of Eurasia Human Migration

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Scientists claim to have discovered where early humans spent 20,000 years living in the midst of their migration from Africa to Eurasia.
Scientists claim to have discovered where early humans spent 20,000 years living in the midst of their migration from Africa to Eurasia. Credit: Adam Jones, Ph.D. – Global Photo Archive. CC BY 2.0/flickr

Scientists claim to have discovered the place where early humans resided in the midst of their migration from the African continent to Eurasia, solving a 20,000-year missing gap in human history.

It has been common knowledge for some time that our ancient ancestors left Africa about 70,000 years ago and proliferated throughout Asia and Europe 45,000 years ago. However, where those early homo sapiens spent their time in between has long been an unsolved puzzle.

A team of international researchers has discovered that around a thousand of these travelers lived in a region that spanned the Middle East, known as the Persian Plateau.
The thesis was confirmed using ancient DNA, modern gene pools, and palaeoecological evidence. This clarified that the area would have been an ideal inhabitable space before they continued to settle in Asia and Europe.

“Our results provide the first full picture of the whereabouts of the ancestors of all present-day non-Africans in the early phases of the colonization of Eurasia,” Luca Pagani of the University of Padova in Italy, senior author of the study, told the Daily Mail.

The research team examined ancient genomes from West Central Eurasia and China and discovered that ancestors of present-day Eurasians emerged from the region 45,000 years ago. They then colonized most of Eurasia and Oceania. Simulations were produced to afford a look back in time to the landscape and climate of the Persian Plateau. This showed it was higher during the time Homo sapiens arrived.

According to researchers, this gave those early humans an advantage over surrounding areas. It helped them survive and eventually migrate to Eurasia.

“Furthermore, the presence of a viable area located on both shores of the Red Sea and stretching across the Mediterranean Sea would seem to offer a suitable habitat,” reads the study published in the journal Nature.

What was life like for humans on the Persian Plateau before heading to Eurasia?

These humans resided in small, mobile bands of hunter-gatherers, as per researchers. The region supposedly offered a diverse range of ecological settings, from forests to grasslands and savannahs. There were fluctuations over time between dry and wet periods.

There apparently would have been plenty of resources available, with evidence showing the hunting of wild gazelle, sheep, and goats, study co-author Michael Petraglia from Australia’s Griffith University told the Daily Mail.

“Their diet would have been composed of edible plants and small to large-sized game,” he added. “Hunter gathered bands appear to have practiced a seasonal lifestyle, inhabiting the lowlands in the cooler months and the mountainous areas in the warmer months.”

The Homo sapiens living in the region at the time had dark skin and hair, possibly resembling the Gumuz or Anuak people who now exist in parts of East Africa.

“Cave art simultaneously appeared as soon as people left the hub. So these cultural achievements might have been brewed while in the hub,” Pagani told the Daily Mail. However, no fossilized remains of human beings have ever been found on the Persian Plateau but have been unearthed in Arabia and the Levant. This band of Homo sapiens would be direct descendants of those from the region, the study claimed.

Neanderthal Mother diorama.
Neanderthal mother diorama. Credit: Kojotisko. CC BY 1.0/flickr

Homo sapiens were not the first human species to inhabit land outside of Africa, including the region studied by the research team. Ancient interbreeding by our species has left a residual Neanderthal contribution to the DNA of modern non-Africans.

“Neanderthals are attested in the area before the arrival of Homo Sapiens, so the region may well have been where that interaction took place,” Vallini told the Daily Mail.

Nashville Parthenon Turns Blue for Greek Independence Day Commemoration

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Nashville Parthenon in Blue lights, Greek Independence Day
Annual Greek Independence Day Illumination, Nashville Parthenon. Credit: Courtesy T. Dimopoulos 

In its fourth annual celebration of Greek Independence Day in Nashville, Tennessee, the US branch of the Hellenic Institute of Cultural Diplomacy and President DeeGee Lester welcomed Greek Consul-Atlanta Theodoros Dimopoulos in a ceremony at the Parthenon. The iconic structure was illuminated in blue, one of the two colors of the Greek flag, as a tribute to commemorate Greek Independence Day.

Celebrating Greek Independence Day at the Nashville Parthenon

Marking a dual celebration, Ms. Lester was joined by speakers in “honoring visionaries – those of ancient Greece who through their curiosity and genius inspired civilization; those Greeks who boldly re-dedicated themselves to the cause of liberty from the Ottoman Empire on this date (March 25) in 1821; and Nashville’s Dr Philip Lindsley whose 1824 vision for Nashville as a ‘New Athens’ created a legacy for the pursuit of excellency in culture and education.”

Now in it’s fourth year, Nashville is home to the US branch of the multi-nation HICD. Founded in Athens, Greece by President Peter Kapsaskis on March 25th, 2017, the organization says it is dedicated to building, through active and robust events and programming, bridges of mutual friendship and sharing between Greece and HICD’s growing member nations.

Annual Greek Independence Day Illumination, Nashville Parthenon.
Annual Greek Independence Day Illumination, Nashville Parthenon. Credit: Courtesy of T. Dimopoulos

Honoring Greek Independence, and on behalf of Mayor Freddie O’Connell and the city of Nashville, a mayoral proclamation was presented to Greek Consul Theodoros Dimopoulos by Metro Parks Director Monique Odom. In acceptance on behalf of Greece, Consul Dimopoulos offered his own message of friendship and understanding, honoring the tradition of Philhellenes who supported the cause of Greek Independence, and the unity of the two nations through generations.

The event also recognized the reputation of Nashville as the ‘Athens of the South’ through the Bicentennial presentation of the Hon. John Cooper (former Mayor of Nashville and a descendant of Philip Lindsley).

Consul T. Dimopoulos Nashville Parthenon
Consul Dimopoulos receiving Mayoral Proclamation, presented by Metro Parks Director Monique Odom. Credit: Mason Thorn Photography

1824 marked the arrival of classicist and college president Dr Philip Lindsley in Nashville and his stated vision for the city: “To create on the frontier a new Athens dedicated to education and the arts.”

Throughout the 19th century that vision for the city evolved from the Athens of the West into recognition as the “Athens of the South,” as home to world class universities and, by the 1897 Tennessee Centennial Exposition, as home to the Parthenon which has served for generations as the cultural anchor of the city.

The day’s Greek Independence Day events closed with the fourth annual illumination in Greek blue and white lighting of three iconic Nashville sites: the Parthenon, the Greek Revival Tennessee State Capitol, and the Metro Courthouse.

This Parthenon in Nashville is a full-scale, meticulously crafted replica of one of history’s most iconic Greek structures. The Nashville Parthenon lies at the heart of the city’s centennial park. It is a true testament to the city’s rich cultural heritage and the real proof of its nickname, “the Athens of the South.”

Nashville Parthenon

Originally constructed for the Tennessee Centennial Exposition in 1897, the replica of the Parthenon bridges the ancient with the modern world. However, it is more than that. It is an active link that connects the two sides of the Atlantic, attesting the friendship of the Americans and Greeks to this day. This is the reason why it is worth exploring the history, architectural elements, and cultural impact of this US landmark that brings a glimpse of Greece to the heart of Tennessee.

A full-scale replica of the Parthenon in Centennial Park, Nashville, under a partly cloudy sky.
The Nashville Parthenon, a tribute to classical Greek architecture in Centennial Park, Nashville. Credit: John LaGuardia, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

The monument was originally constructed as a temporary feature for the Tennessee Centennial Exposition. It was the time when Tennessee was celebrating the 100th anniversary of its entry to the Union. The purpose of this replica was to embody Nashville’s cultural identity as the “Athens of the South.”

This was a clear nod to the city’s commitment and dedication to education, art, and philosophy. The Parthenon of Nashville was initially built from plaster, wood, and brick. This Nashville replica, of course, comes as a stark contrast to the original Parthenon that dominates the Greek skyline in Athens.

The ancient Greeks built the original Parthenon at the top of the Acropolis using the finest Greek marble, and it has endured centuries of wear. Captivating the public’s imagination and soon becoming an iconic landmark of the city, it was decided that the structure would be reconstructed in concrete in Nashville, as so happened in the 1920s. This ensured that it would stay there as a monument to Classical beauty and an educational tool for future generations.

 

Secret NASCAR ‘Moonshine Cave’ Discovery May Confirm Conspiracy Theory

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North Wilkesboro NASCAR Speedway, where officials may have found a secret moonshine store.
North Wilkesboro NASCAR Speedway, where officials may have found a secret moonshine cave. Credit: quiksilver_199. CC BY 2.0/flickr

legendary NASCAR North Wilkesboro speedway’s mythical secret moonshine cave, created during the prohibition era, may have been found, proving very dedicated conspiracy theorists right.

The history of NASCAR is said to have strong links with illegal moonshine throughout the prohibition era, and one local myth which surrounds one of the sport’s historic racetracks may have become fact this week.

North Wilkesboro speedway officials in North Carolina said that a long-rumored hidden moonshine storage space may have been discovered under one of the grandstands as a result of a sinkhole. In a press release, officials said staff found an area of about 700 square feet underneath the old concrete of section N of the track while in the middle of a cleaning operation.

Has the NASCAR Moonshine Cave Conspiracy Been proven?

“When we began renovating and restoring North Wilkesboro Speedway in 2022, we’d often hear stories of how an old moonshine still was operated here on the property under the grandstands,” Speedway Motorsports Vice President of Operations and Development Steve Swift told Fox News.

Adding, “Well, we haven’t found a still (yet), but we’ve found a small cave and an interior wall that would have been the perfect location to not only make illegal liquor, but to hide from the law as well. We don’t know how people would have gotten in and out, but as we uncover more, there’s no telling what we might find.”

Staff at the speedway stadium removed around 600 seats and are figuring out the next stages for repair ahead of the NASCAR All-Star Race set to take place on May 14-19, officials said. Swift added that there was a lot of work to be done before fans could come and sit for the race, as reported by Fox News.

Wilkes County, North Carolina, was at one time considered the capital of the moonshine industry in the state, according to Spectrum News. Moving the moonshine required fast and skilled drivers who could navigate the backroads at night, and resulted in competitive racing between drivers and eventually the beginning of NASCAR.

Moonshine is high-proof liquor, originally made and distributed illegally. Its secretive distribution is known as bootlegging. The name was derived from a tradition of creating the alcohol during the night time, thus avoiding being seen or caught.

In the first decades of the 21st century, commercial distilleries adopted the term for its outlaw connotations and began to produce their own legally sanctioned, novelty “moonshine”, including many flavored varieties, that in some way continue its tradition, typically having a similar method and location of production.

NASCAR is an American racing and operating company that is best known for stock car racing. it is considered one of the top ranked motorsports organizations in the world and is one of the largest spectator sports in the US.

Kinds of Kindness: Trailer of Lanthimos’ New Film With Emma Stone Released

Lanthimos Stone
After Poor Things, Lanthimos and Stone are set to release a new movie. Credits:   Anna HanksCC BY 2.0 and Nicholas R. Andrew, Public Domain Mark 1.0.

The first trailer for Kinds of Kindness, the next film helmed by Yorgos Lanthimos, starring Emma Stone, has been released. The movie will open in US theaters on June 21st.

The announcement was made by Searchlight, the indie studio that’s distributing the film.

Though the plot remains under wraps, Kinds of Kindness is an anthology film that reunites Stone with her Poor Things co-stars, Willem Dafoe and Margaret Qualley, as well as The Favourite actor Joe Alwyn. Jesse Plemons, Hong Chau, Hunter Schafer, and Mamoudou Athie will round out the cast.

Lanthimos penned the screenplay with Efthimis Filippou, with whom he co-wrote the dark thrillers and absurdist comedies, The Lobster, Killing of a Sacred Deer, and Dogtooth. The movie, originally titled And, was shot in New Orleans in late 2022.

The Athens-born director teased what audiences can expect from the new contemporary film set in the US, during a British Film Institute event in January.

“It’s three different stories, and we’re finishing the edit right now, and I still can’t tell you exactly what it is about,” he said at the time.

“But I also wouldn’t want to tell you what I thought the stories are about because it just makes it so small,” he added. “I try not to even think about it during the process because I’m afraid that it will make my choices more narrow.”

Kinds of Kindness comes after Lanthimos and Stone Oscars

The news comes as Lanthimos’ Poor Things won four Oscars from eleven nominations earlier this week, including Stone’s second Academy Award trophy for best actress following 2016’s La La Land. Poor Things also won best production design, costume design, and makeup and hairstyling.

The pair previously worked together on 2018’s The Favourite, which landed ten Oscar nominations, including best supporting actress for Stone, with the movie’s lone win going to Olivia Colman for lead actress.

In between the two highly praised films, the two worked together in Greece for Bleat, a surrealistic black-and-white short film about a grieving widow that’s only screened a handful of times, as it requires a live orchestra.

They are already in talks to arrange their sixth movie, a remake of the South Korean fantasy comedy Save the Green Planet.

Stone has spoken about her creative partnership with Lanthimos, saying: “Yorgos feels like a lot of his process of working with people or putting people in his films has to do with who they are as a person. It’s not just performance-based.”

African Dust Cloud Blankets Greece

African Dust Cloud
The dust cloud has severely impaired vision in Athens. File photo. Credit: AMNA

A dust cloud from the African continent blew over the eastern Mediterranean, shrouding large swathes of Greece in a haze. On Thursday, the phenomenon is anticipated to continue.

Much of the country, including the capital Athens, has severely impaired vision due to the dust cloud.

The southern island of Crete was particularly heavily struck. Airborne dust levels there have been above 50 mg/m³ in the western parts.

The elderly, small children and those with respiratory conditions have been recommended by the local health authorities to minimize their outside activities.

The most noteworthy repercussions of the African dust clouds in Greece will be:

  • an increase in temperatures in the next few days
  • restricted visibility in various places
  • muddy rain, mostly in western and northern parts of the country

Dust and sand are associated with health problems

The African dust is associated with health problems in the general population in Greece. It has been observed that on days with dust concentrations, hospital admissions increase.

Research conducted by Greek and foreign scientists has identified a whole list of hazardous heavy metals in the African dust. This is alarming to society, as the African dust has been “traveling” to Greece more and more frequently over recent years due to the increased desertification in the Sahara.

According to assessments, the dust and sand that travel from Africa to Greece transport poisonous substances, such as lead, zinc, chromium, vanadium, arsenic, and nickel in much higher quantities than previously thought.

Formation of African dust and sand clouds

In order for Saharan dust to impact systems around the globe, it must first become airborne and leave the Sahara Desert.

The Bodélé Depression is one of the most significant sites of Saharan dust and sand cloud formation. The depression is composed of dried lake beds which are now covered by dunes.

Winds moving at speeds between 6 and 16 m/s (13-35 mph) through this region pick up loose sediment and transport the dust away from the Sahara.

Naturally, higher wind speeds lead to the transport of greater amounts of dust in this region. The highest output of dust from this area occurs from spring through fall.

The Sahara is the largest source of aeolian dust in the world, with annual production rates of about 400-700 x 106 tons/year, which is almost half of all aeolian desert inputs to the ocean. Saharan dust is often produced by natural process such as wind storms and doesn’t appear to be heavily impacted by human activities.

What a Clinic Looked Like in Ancient Greece

Ancient Greek Clinic
The young physician is depicted in a sitting position using a small type of lancet to stimulate bloodletting from the patient. Public Domain

The first realistic depiction of an outpatient clinic in ancient Greece is on a drawing on a small vase created in Athens around 470 B.C. now on display at the Louvre Museum in France.

The drawing on the vase called aryvallos depicts a physician performing bloodletting on a patient. Another five males, four of them with injuries holding canes, are waiting their turn.

Among them, a dwarf holding a hare on his shoulder can be seen. Suction cups on the wall and a copper basin on the floor for blood collection are also included in the picture.

Ancient Greek clinic
The waiting patients at the clinic. Public Domain

The characters depicted in the clinic of ancient Greece

The young physician of light complexion is depicted in a sitting position using a small type of lancet, to cause bloodletting from a vein of the right arm of an almost nude, bearded man with dark hair who is standing and supporting himself with a cane which he holds in his left hand.

The painting includes another five male figures. On the right side of the patient, there is a male figure. That man is sitting and is unclothed above the waist. He has a beard and dark hair. A bandage can be seen covering his upper arm.

Another man who is dressed and also has a beard and dark hair is standing behind him, raising his right hand in a gesture, as if addressing the physician. A bandage covers part of his left arm. It can be assumed that the two latter men are awaiting their turn to be examined.

An additional bearded man with dark hair is standing behind the previous one. He stands and crosses his feet. He has his right hand on his waist and is leaning to the left, supported by a crunch.

This last figure is looking down at a bearded nude dwarf who carries a hare on his shoulder. Finally, there is another man, who is dressed and has no beard and a light complexion. He appears to be moving with the support of a cane towards the rear of the physician who is sitting. A bandage covers part of his left leg.

On the wall, above the physician who is sitting, three suction cups can be seen—two on his left and one on his right side.

Earliest known realistic scene of medical service

The vase (aryvallos) depicts the earliest known realistic scene of medical service in Western history, the authors of a recent study wrote in the Journal of Clinical Medicine.

“All previous Ancient Greek scenes which dealt with relevant themes, invariably included ‘holy’ and divine interventions,” says co-author Manolis Stefanakis, Professor of classical archeology at the Department of Mediterranean Studies of the University of the Aegean.

“Trauma management, as well as bloodletting seem to form part of the everyday medical practice of that time, while gifts to physicians (one of the possible explanations of the dwarf’s hare, which is depicted in the aryvallos scene) were common.

“Additionally, historical sources reveal that Ancient Greek physicians were well-paid and much respected,” the Greek professor adds. “Medicine has always been an honorable practice throughout the centuries.”

“Through the illustration of the vase, the painter approaches in a rudimentary, but clear way, issues such as the space and furniture of the doctor’s office, the doctor’s position and attitude, his morals and remuneration, the patient’s attitude, the dressing of a wound—with indirect reference to the practice of phlebotomy and the use of bloody suction cups-, as well as the special case of achondroplasia, a genetic disorder that is the most common form of dwarfism,” Stefanakis told the Athens Macedonia News Agency (AMNA).

The vessel stands out for its two particularities: its shape and the figurative decoration it bears on the belly band.

As for the shape, it is relatively rare to find a spherical aryvallus in Attica, a shape—and a vase in general—that is mostly assigned to Corinth during the 7th and 6th centuries BC.

As far as the figurative decoration is concerned, the vase stands out both for its red-figure technique and for its historical contribution to the daily life of the ancient Athenians, being the only figurative testimony to date of an active Athenian medical center,” Stefanakis told AMNA.

Greek Wines Command Higher Prices in World Export Markets

Greek wines
A 12.7 percent price jump in Greek wine exports to France and a 6.4 percent in the US was recorded last year. Credit: Facebook/Taverna Opa Restaurants

Greek wines are steadily commanding higher prices in overseas markets, underscoring the increasingly premium quality of the country’s vintages and helping to support the overall value of Greek exports.

Last year, the price of Greek wine increased between 3.6 percent and 5.8 percent on average across the country’s major export markets inside and outside the European Union.

That included a 12.7 percent price jump in Greek wine exports to France, one of Europe’s most sophisticated wine markets, and a 6.4 percent price increase in exports to the U.S., one of the world’s fastest-growing and most competitive wine markets.

The data, derived from official statistics by Greece’s Central Cooperative Union of Wine Products (KEOSOE) also show that exports to Germany, Greece’s single biggest export market that accounts for more than half of Greek exports, rose to €2.71 per kilogram last year, up 6.4 percent from €2.55 in 2022.

Overall, the rising prices commanded worldwide surpassed the average price increase over the previous five years, confirming the premium trend in Greek production.

Greece’s wine industry has been transforming with the entry of hundreds of new vintners and a growing appreciation for Greek wines abroad. Four Greek wineries are among the world’s top wineries listed by Wine & Spirits Magazine, while leading international media, like The New York Times, have favorably reviewed Greek wines in recent years.

Related: Top Ten Greek Wines

Drop in production of Greek wines

However, higher prices are also due to the fall in worldwide production, including in Greece.

In 2023, the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV) predicted world wine production would fall to its lowest level in sixty years and, in Greece, a significant decrease of 45 percent compared to 2022 was expected.

This was due to poor harvests in the Southern Hemisphere and in some major European producers, including Greece.

Based on the information collected on twenty-nine countries, which accounted for 94 percent of the global production in 2022, world wine production (excluding juices and musts) in 2023 was expected to have been between 241.7 mhl and 246.6 mhl, with a mid-range estimate at 244.1 mhl . This would represent a decrease of seven percent compared to the already below-average volume of 2022, OIV said.

Greece had an expected wine production in 2023 of 1.1 mhl. This volume represents a significant decrease not only from 2022 (-45 percent) but also from its last five-year average (-50 percent).

This can be attributed to the heavy rainfalls during spring which caused grape diseases (notably downy mildew) and to elevated temperatures and drought in summer months that strongly impacted the vines, OIV notes.

In early September 2023, the Greek Winemakers Association’s leader, Yiannis Voyatzis, said that wine production was expected to drop by 30 percent, primarily attributed to the prevalence of downy mildew.

Related: The Cretan Who Made Greek Wines Famous in Florida

 

Hypatia: The Female Greek Philosopher Killed for Her Beliefs

Hypatia
Death of the Greek philosopher Hypatia. Unknown artist. Public Domain

Hypatia, one of the greatest philosophers of Alexandria, was admired for her groundbreaking ideas but was brutally murdered for them by Christian fanatics in the fourth century AD.

Born around the year 360, Hypatia was a female Greek philosopher, astronomer and mathematician who went completely against the norms of the time, yet gained tremendous respect for her great mind and accomplishments.

Her father, Theon, was a mathematician and astronomer who never tried to curb his daughter’s thirst for knowledge.

Hypatia was a member of the Neoplatonic school of philosophy. She would appear draped in the robes of the academic elite — something that only men were allowed to do at the time.

One could safely say that by today’s standards she was a feminist, and definitely one of the first in recorded history.

Her love for astronomy led her to build astrolabes, which are used for examining and measuring celestial bodies in the night sky, and she charted the courses of stars and planets.

Hypatia studied philosophy in Athens and returned to Alexandria, where she taught philosophy, mathematics and astronomy to the young people of the city.

Among her students were the offspring of the most powerful families of Alexandria, who later progressed to assume high positions in Alexandrian society.

Loved and respected in Alexandria

In Alexandria, Hypatia taught Platonic philosophy, the Ptolemaic system of celestial movement, and the advanced mathematics of Euclid.

She was known as a gifted teacher, and was undoubtedly one of the greatest thinkers of the time.

Two of Hypatia’s students were the Bishop of Kyrenia, Synesius, and the Prefect of Alexandria, Orestes.

Hypatia kept up a continuous correspondence with Synesius, parts of which have miraculously survived and reveal the enormous admiration that the Bishop had for Hypatia.

“Even if Hades is a place of complete oblivion, even there I will remember you, dear Hypatia”, he wrote in one of his letters.

The brilliant woman would often head to the city center and give orations on her thoughts regarding Plato. Audiences were captivated, not just by her ideas but by her looks as well.

Hypatia was respected by the the city’s intellectuals and scholars. She was equally respected by Christians, who used her as an example of chastity.

An anecdote that survives about her chastity begins by stating that once a young man had expressed his love for her. In response, she showed him a handkerchief soiled with her menstrual blood to emphasize the impurity of carnal relationships.

Hypatia was celibate, and historians believe she remained a virgin until her death.

Her chastity made her very popular in Greek society, which prized celibacy as a virtue, and therefore she was acceptable and viewed as respectable to both men and women.

Hypatia
Portrait of Hypatia by Elbert Hubbard (1856-1915). Public Domain

Christian fanatics killed Hypatia

Hypatia practiced paganism at a time when Christianity was in its infancy and growing, and therefore some of its followers were more fanatical.

The female philosopher did not try to conceal her pagan beliefs and continued to practice paganism, something that infuriated the city’s Christians.

It was widely believed that Cyril, a notable Alexandrian bishop, made it his mission to eliminate the influence of the idol-worshipping female philosopher and astronomer.

The bishop accused Hypatia publicly as an idol-worshipper, then allegedly ordered a mob of fanatics to kidnap her.

The Christian fanatics indeed kidnapped the woman and dragged her through the streets while torturing her horribly.

It is said that the tortures were extremely cruel, including scraping Hypatia’s flesh with oyster shells.

Then the mob took her to a church where they stripped her naked, lashed her, and tore her limbs from her body.

Hypatia
Rachel Weisz as Hypatia of Alexandria n the motion picture Agora (2009). Credit: Focus Features, Newmarket Films/Telecinco Cinema

Was Hypatia a victim of politics?

According to historian Socrates the Scholastic, the death of Hypatia was the result of a political dispute between the Prefect of Alexandria, Orestes, and the Bishop of Alexandria, Cyril.

In 415 AD, Orestes issued a decree regulating the public feasts of the Jews, as they usually celebrated in large crowds and caused riots. The Jews opposed the regulations.

The decree was affixed to a wall, and a Christian named Hierax loudly supported the new arrangements.

Hierax was a very enthusiastic listener to bishop Cyril’s sermons, and made himself conspicuous by his forwardness in applauding the decree.

The Jews took the act of Hierax as an insult and a provocation to incite sedition, and addressed Prefect Orestes, urging him to order his arrest and have him tortured in public.

Orestes was angered that the Bishop was sending spies to his proceedings, and by his power to influence the Christians, and proceeded with the torture.

The cruel punishment of a Christian citizen angered Bishop Cyril — especially when Orestes acted this way to please the Jews — and in retaliation he launched an attack on the Jews of the city.

After a series of fights, during which both camps suffered heavy losses, Bishop Cyril exiled all the Jews from Alexandria and allowed the Christians to usurp their property.

The Prefect became furious with Cyril and the tension between them peaked. Then 500 fanatical monks arrived to fight on the side of Cyril.

One of them, Ammonius, threw a stone at Orestes, which wounded him in the head. Ammonius was arrested on the spot, then tortured and executed.

Hypatia was a close friend and advisor of the Prefect. According to Socrates Scholasticus, the female philosopher was actually a victim of political rivalries, as she was unfoundedly accused by Christians of turning Orestes against them.

The mob, led by the clergyman Petros, abducted her and took her to a church, where she was stripped naked and beaten. When she died, they dismembered her body and threw every limb into the fire.

Clearly, the fourth century was an era of great political and religious turmoil, with the two intermingling most of the time.

Religious doctrines were at times interpreted according to one’s best interests, and a crowd could be easily manipulated to turn into a mob.

Hypatia’s ideas about philosophy and astronomy were far ahead of her time, winning the admiration of academics and intellectuals, and her achievements will live forever.