While Athens and Sparta dominate history book pages, there are lesser known ancient Greek city-states that played an important role in the spread of Greek civilization.

City-states such as Thebes in Central Greece, Argos and Corinth in the Peloponnese, the island of Rhodes, and the Ionian Ephesus and Miletus on the Anatolia coast contributed greatly to the glory of ancient Greece and its priceless influence on the Western World.

The Theban city-state

Thebes in Boeotia, north of the Attica region in Central Greece, spans five millennia of history and has a rich mythology. It had contacts with the Minoan civilization as ruins of the palace at Cadmea attest. It was an important Mycenaean center in the middle to late Bronze Age and a powerful city-state in the Classical period. The kingdom of Thebes played an instrumental role in the Persian Wars (492-449 BC) and sided with Sparta against Athens in the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC).

According to legend, Thebes was the birthplace of mighty Heracles and the place where the Sphinx, the mythical creature with a woman’s head and a winged lion’s body, terrorized the area until her riddle was solved. It was also the place where the legendary tragedies  Oedipus the King and Antigone by Sophocles took place.

In the 6th century BC, a league of Boeotian cities was formed and led by Thebes. In the 5th century, Thebes clashed with the Plataea city-state, located on the border with Attica.  Hostility to Athens over mutual interest in the Plataea area encouraged the Thebans to collaborate with Persia and later with Sparta. When Sparta won the Peloponnesian War, Thebans suggested the annihilation of Athens, but the Spartans refused.

Eventually, Thebes and Sparta clashed, and the Spartans won. They disbanded the Boeotian League and occupied Cadmea in 382 BC. Three years later, Thebes managed to reorganize the league and responded by taking back Cadmea. They fought two victorious battles against the Spartans at Tegyra in 375 BC and Leuctra in 371 BC. The latter sealed the dominance of the Thebans in the region and proved to be of great importance, as the Leuctra battle tactics were copied by Philip II of Macedon who was living in Thebes and studying war techniques under Theban General Epaminondas at the time.

For the next ten years, Thebes was the first military power in Greece. Its commander Epaminondas invaded the Peloponnese (370–362 BC) and died at the Battle of Mantineia.  After that, the power of Thebes declined. In 346, civil strife forced Thebes to admit Philip II of Macedon. When Thebes fell out with Philip, the Macedonian king destroyed its army in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC and dissolved the Boeotian League. In 336 BC, Philip II was assassinated, and the Boeotians revolted. This time, Alexander the Great destroyed Thebes completely after he massacred all the men and sold all women and children to slavery.

Thebes was rebuilt by Alexander’s general, Cassander, in 316 BC and for years wavered between independence and subjugation, forming alliances as circumstances required. The Thebans participated in the Achaean revolt against Rome and eventually were conquered. Roman general Sulla stripped Thebes of half its territory in 86 BC.

Argos: One of the oldest Greek city-states

Argos in the northeastern Peloponnese is one of the oldest ancient Greek city-states and one of the oldest towns in Europe, as it has been inhabited since 3000 BC. It was named after Argos (or Argus), the son of Zeus, and Niobe. Argos was favored by goddess Hera and it held the Panhellenic Heraia festival from the 7th century BC onwards. A sanctuary dedicated to Hera has been found six miles from the city.

Ancient Argos was an important Mycenaean town during the Late Bronze Age (1700-1100 BC), reaching its peak in the 14th and 13th centuries BC. In the 7th century BC, during the reign of King Pheidon, Argos witnessed its greatest growth and strength. It started controlling the rest of the Argolid cities and became a powerful opponent of Sparta’s supremacy in the Peloponnese. Argive warriors beat the Spartans in the Battle of Hysiae in 669–668 BC. For some historians, this ended Spartan rule. Pheidon introduced such military innovations as hoplite tactics and double-grip shields.

During that period, Argos was famous for its rich agriculture, horse rearing, pottery and bronze workshops, sculpting schools, tanneries, and clothing manufacturers. It hosted at least twenty-five events in addition to the usual expositions of local goods.

During the Persian Wars of the 5th century, Argos declined to join the Hellenic League of Greek nations in 481 BC and afterward either stayed neutral or showed a pro-Persian stance. Taking advantage of the turmoil in Greece at the time, Argos absorbed neighboring kingdoms like Tiryns, Mycenae, and Nemea. From 415 BC until approximately 330 BC, it hosted the biannual Panhellenic Games, which had previously been hosted in Nemea.

Argos remained neutral during the wars of Philip II of Macedon. In 281 BC, he became a member of the Achaean League (281-146 BC). When Rome took control of Greece from 146 BC on, the city’s mythical heritage meant that Argos enjoyed a certain prestige even in Roman times. Roman Emperor Hadrian (r. 117-138 AD) built several buildings and structures in the city, including an aqueduct and baths.

Corinth: Connecting Central Greece with the Peloponnese

The site of ancient Corinth in northern Peloponnese was first inhabited in the Neolithic period (6500-3250 BC). Its strategic location at the intersection of land routes from mainland Greece towards the Peloponnese and waterways that connect the Western Mediterranean to its Eastern counterpart and Asia Minor offered the region enormous potential for communication, growth, and prosperity.

Homer described the city-state as “prosperous” in the Iliad because of its especially fertile soil. The great output of agricultural products meant extensive trade activities mainly towards the Western Mediterranean. In the 8th century BC, the Corinthians established colonies on Corfu in the Ionian Sea and Syracuse in Sicily, playing an important role in the history of the ancient Mediterranean world. The economic prosperity of the city-state reached its apogee in the 7th to 6th centuries BC under the administration of the tyrant Cypselus and his son Periander.

During its time of prosperity, Corinth erected grandiose buildings like the Temple of Apollo (560 BC) and promoted the Isthmian Games at the Corinthian sanctuary of Poseidon and Amphitrite at Isthmus to the status of the Panhellenic Games (584 BC), further increasing the fame and influence of the city.

However, from the end of the 6th century BC, Athens entered sea trade with its dominance in the production of ceramic vases. It soon eclipsed Corinthian trade in the Mediterranean,  particularly after the Persian Wars (490-479 BC), during which, despite their powerful participation, the Corinthians were forced to yield to the primacy of the Athenians.

In the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), Corinth openly allied with Sparta, exhorting the Spartans to attack Athens. Corinth hoped the Athenians would direct their resources in the war and reduce sea trading activities. However, despite the defeat of Athens and its involvement in a number of other military campaigns, such as the so-called “Corinthian War” against Sparta (395-387 BC), the city-state of Corinth did not manage to regain its former glory.

When Philip II of Macedon organized a Panhellenic Conference in Corinth in 337 BC, the city-state temporarily returned to center stage. Nevertheless, it quickly succumbed to the Macedonians. When Aratus of Sicyon kicked out the Macedonians in 243 BC, Corinth joined the Achaean League, a union of city-states of southern Greece. However, the fighting between the League and Rome led to the battle of Leukopetra in 146 BC in the region of Isthmus, where the Greek troops were crushed by the Roman legions under Lucius Mummius. What followed was the complete destruction and devastation of Corinth.

Ephesus: The Anatolian coastal jewel

Ephesus was founded by Ionian Greeks who arrived on the west coast of Anatolia around 1000 BC. The area became known as Ionia. The ancient Greek city-state grew into an important commercial port, a religious center for the cult of Artemis, and one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League.

Legend has it that its founder was Androklos, son of Kodros, a legendary king of Athens who drove out the native people. The city-state became famous for the Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. It was first built in 550 BC, and in the early 3rd century, the Ionians finished an even more magnificent temple.

Ephesus was conquered by the famous Croesus, king of the neighboring Lydia, around 560 BC. Croesus, renowned for his wealth, enlarged the city. It is said that he may have introduced coinage to Ephesus. However, Croesus was defeated in battle by King Cyrus the Great, and Ionia became part of the Persian Empire in 546 BC.

Nonetheless, in 498 BC, Athens backed the Ionian Revolt of the dissatisfied city-states against Persian King Darius the Great, who had appointed tyrants to the city-states of Ionia. This led to the Battle of Ephesus in which the Greeks were defeated, forcing Athens to stop the backing of the Ionians. Consequently, Persian King Darius and his successor, Xerxes tried to conquer Greece in the Greco-Persian Wars. The Greeks kicked the Persians off the mainland and most of the Greek islands.

After that, with the help of Athens in 479 BC, the Ionians pushed out the Persians from the coastal areas of Anatolia. A year later, the Ionian cities joined the anti-Persian Delian League, led by Athens, with Ephesus contributing money to the league.

In 334 BC, Alexander the Great defeated the Persian king Darius III and freed the Greeks of Anatolia. Following his death in 323 BC, his generals and successors waged war on each other for control of parts of his empire. Eventually, in 301 BC, Lysimachus took control of Ionia and decided to rebuild Ephesus by moving the city, as it was prone to flooding due to River Cayster. While the city was situated around the Temple of Artemis, Lysimachus had the unpopular idea of relocating the city.

The Ephesians were very attached to their temple, and Lysimachus is said to have had to force them to move by flooding the plain. The new tyrant took it a step further and renamed the city Arsinoeia after his wife Arsinoe, who later became Queen Arsinoe II of Egypt, the scheming daughter of Ptolemy I. This never caught on, and after Lysimachus’ death in battle against the army of Seleucus I Nicator in 281 BC, the city reverted to its old name and became part of the Seleucid Empire.

When King Antiochus II Theos and his Egyptian wife were murdered in 246 BC, pharaoh Ptolemy III invaded the Seleucid Empire and took over. The Ptolemies ruled Ephesus for half a century until 197 BC. Seleucid King Antiochus III the Great tried to regain the Greek cities of Asia Minor and recaptured Ephesus in 196 BC, but he found himself facing Rome. After a series of battles, treaties, and different rulers, the city-state came under the rule of Eumenes II, the Attalid king of Pergamon. When his grandson Attalus III died in 133 BC without male children to inherit the throne, it passed to the Roman Republic.

Miletus: The oldest city-state

Miletus was a wealthy city-state from the 4th millennium BC. It was a famous trade hub standing at the gate of the East to the West and vice versa. It was a Middle Bronze Age Minoan colony (1700-1500 BC) as the important architectural remains, wall paintings, and pottery show. Between 1400 and 1100 BC, Miletus developed into a flourishing Mycenaean settlement with an imposing wall reinforced with towers and houses of the megaron plan. There was also the elaborate temple of Athena.

According to mythological tradition, Miletus was founded by Neleus, son of King Kodros of Athens, in the 11th to 10th century BC. It was the home of Greek natural philosophers such as Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Anaximenes, the historiographer Hekataios, and the town planner Hippodamos, whose rectangular grid system the city follows.

The prosperity of Miletus was mainly based on the rich land bearing plentiful agricultural products that the city-state controlled. The production of olive oil, and possibly wine, must have been significant, judging by the widespread Milesian amphorae found in the Eastern and Central Mediterranean.

Miletus was also famous for its own trading products, such as its exceptional pottery, high-quality lamb wool and textiles, and the purple dye. Its reputation continued up until the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Milesians were also involved in large-scale furniture production, making distinctive furniture with rectangular legs and ornate designs. In the 5th century BC, the beds of Miletus were particularly popular and considered valuable possessions. Between 434 and 433 BC, there were ten beds among the offerings of Miletus to the Parthenon of Athens. This increased to sixteen in subsequent years.

From the 8th century BC, the prosperity of Miletus brought along an increase in population and subsequent congestion in the city-state. More importantly, however, the colonies were rich in raw materials such as metals, timber, fish, wheat, and so on. Therefore, Miletus saw a great increase in mercantile activity. Ancient sources report that the Milesians founded ninety colonies, while scholars speak of about forty. Nonetheless, even this number is very impressive. The Milesians played an active role in trade with the West and participated in the foundation of Naucratis in Egypt.

In 494 BC the city-state was destroyed by the Persians and lost its primacy in Ionia and the Black Sea. In 480 BC, when the Greeks defeated the Persians, this restored freedom to the Ionian cities. Miletus joined the Delian League and regained part of its former status. However, since its prosperity was mainly based on sea trade, the rise of Athens as a naval power subsequently led to its supremacy in sea trade in the eastern Mediterranean.

In 386 BC, the Ionian cities again came under Persian control as a result of the Kings’ Peace settlement. Then, in 334 BC, Alexander the Great freed the Ionian cities from Persian rule. During the Hellenistic period, Miletus passed under the control of several dynasties. In the period of the Ptolemaic dynasty, Miletus competed with Rhodes and Athens in trading with Alexandria, showing some signs of prosperity. Finally, it was presented to the Romans by the last king of Pergamon.

Rhodes and its famous Colossus

In Greek mythology, Rhodes was a nymph who bore seven sons to the sun god Helios, patron of the island. Rhodes was a protagonist in ancient Greece throughout the Bronze Age, Archaic, and Classical periods and was particularly prosperous during Hellenistic times. It was also famous as a cultural center and for the Colossus of Rhodes statue, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Rhodes was first inhabited in the Neolithic period as the remains of the prehistoric site of Ialysos town indicate. The settlement became an important Bronze Age center in the 16th century BC when it was in close contact with the Minoan civilization on Crete. Trade and cultural links with the Minoans are evidenced by findings of Linear A script, pottery, fresco designs, and architecture.

In the late Bronze Age, the Mycenaeans established a colony in Ialysos that had previously been destroyed by an earthquake. Pottery and rock-cut tombs arranged in rows attest to the presence of Mycenaean culture. The offerings found inside the tombs included gold and silver items, suggesting prosperity. Furthermore, the presence of Egyptian scarabs and Cypriot seals attests to an extensive trade network in the Mediterranean.

By the 10th century BC, the first Dorian city-states were established on Rhodes, namely Ialyssos, Kamiros, and Lindos. Together with Kos, Cnidus and Halicarnassus formed the Dorian Exapolis, the first economic and political union of the time.

The Persians conquered Rhodes in 490 BC, but their rule did not last long. In 474 BC, Athenian forces liberated the island, and Rhodes became a member of the Delian League, becoming dominated by Athens. In 412 BC, they revolted against Athens and sided with Sparta during the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC.) In 408 BC, the island city-states united and formed a federal state for greater commercial opportunities. The capital of the new state was Rhodes at the northernmost point of the island.

In 395 BC, Rhodes cut ties with Sparta establishing Athenian-inspired democracy. In 378 BC, the island became a member of the Second Athenian Confederacy but that did not last long. Then, in 357 BC, Rhodes became subject to the Carian satrap Mausolus, who stationed a garrison on the island. Next, it was Alexander the Great, who established a Macedonian garrison on Rhodes. However, under his successors, the island enjoyed a period of its former glory and prosperity. Positioned near newly established cities in the Eastern Mediterranean and with five harbors in different parts of the island, its trade activity soared.

When Demetrius I of Macedon attempted to conquer the island around 305 BC and failed after a year-long siege, the Rhodians took advantage by selling the siege weapons and using the money to build a gigantic 33-meter (108 feet) tall bronze statue to honor their patron god Helios. They placed it at the entrance to the island’s main harbor. The Colossus of Rhodes became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was sculpted by Chares of Lindus but was toppled by an earthquake in 228 or 226 BC.

Rhodes kept its independence and continued to be a prosperous trading hub in the Aegean Sea. The island cultivated trade relations with several cities in the Mediterranean, mostly with the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt. At the same time, the naval fleet of Rhodes took on the responsibility of policing the Aegean against piracy, as several Aegean islands such as Carpathos and Nisyros were now under the control of Rhodes.

The island allied with Rome in the wars against Alexander’s successors. As thanks, Rome gave Rhodes territory in Caria and Lycia, and its dominance and trade activity was stabilized. However, the Roman decision to make Delos a free port in 167 BC diminished the trading power of Rhodes.

In 88 BC, the legendary king of Pontus Mithridates VI sieged Rhodes, and Roman general Cassius Longinus sacked the island in 43 BC. That was the end of Rhodes as a political power in ancient Greece. Yet, it continued to be an important cultural center, especially in sculpture and philosophy, with philosophers such as Andronicus, Eudemus, Panaetius, or Hecathon, as well as the writer and poet Apollonius of Rhodes.