Iskenderun-Alexandretta: The Ancient City of Alexander the Great in Turkey

Iskenderun
Iskenderun, also known as Alexandretta and Scanderoon is an ancient city in Hatay Province. Credit: Chanilim714 / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0

Situated in Turkey’s Hatay Province, the city of Iskenderun, formerly known as Alexandretta, has a long and proud history spanning over 2,300 years. The city was originally founded by the Greek Macedonian king Alexander the Great after the dramatic Battle of Issus between the Hellenic (Greek) League and the forces of Achaemenid (Persian) Empire led by Darius III.

Alexandria ad Issum: the ancient city

Iskenderun has a proud history stretching into the ancient past. The city was originally founded by Alexander the Great in 333 BC, shortly after the Battle of Issus.

Iskandar, Iskander, Askander, Eskinder, or Scandar  is a variant of the Greek name Alexander in cultures such as Iran (Persia), Arabia and others throughout the Middle East and Central Asia, originally referring to Alexander the Great.

The Battle of Issus was the second major set-piece battle between Alexander and the Persian Achaemenid Empire. It was the first confrontation in which Alexander faced Darius III in person.

The battle took place near the mouth of the Pinarus River and the town of Issus. The battle resulted in a decisive Hellenic victory and marked the beginning of the end of the Persian power in the region.

Alexander founded the city, which he named after himself, shortly after the battle to commemorate his victory. According to Herodian, a monument and bronze statue erected by the king of Macedon himself was still standing in 200 AD, during Roman rule in the province.

The city was strategically important due to its commanding position near the Syrian Gates, a pass through the Nur Mountains that controls the passage to the open ground of Hatay Province and Aleppo.

After the Hellenistic and Roman eras, the city continued to function as an important port which in the medieval and early modern periods facilitated overland trade from Iran, India, and eastern Asia, before the discovery of alternative maritime routes.

Bakras Castle near Iskenderun Alexandretta, Turkey
Bakras castle, near Iskenderun-Alexandretta. Credit: wikimedia commons / Godfried Warreyn CC BY 2.5

The many cities Alexander named after himself

Alexandria ad Issum, or modern-day Isskenderun, was not the only city Alexander founded and named after himself. The Macedonian king named at least 20 such cities after himself across the wide stretches of the territory he had conquered.

The most famous city founded by the Ancient Greek Macedonian King is of course Alexandria in Egypt. It was founded in 332 BC and served as a vital link between Greece and the rich Nile valley.

Alexandria was the intellectual and cultural center of the ancient world for some time. The city and its museum and library attracted many of the greatest scholars of the day, including Greeks, Jews, and Syrians.

Another city called “Alexandria in Arachosia” was founded in Bactria and is now known as the modern city of Kandahar in Afghanistan.

Alexander appears to have founded this town on the site of a sixth-century BC Persian garrison. Proximity to a mountain pass, a river, and the junction of three long-distance trade routes meant the location was of vital strategic importance.

No ancient Greek buildings have been found in the area, but numerous coins have been discovered in various areas of the city, and there are Greek inscriptions and graves there.

Greek Culture Celebrated in Melbourne, Sydney Festivals

Antipodes Festival Melbourne 2024
Credit: Facebook / Antipodes Festival

Thousands of Greek culture and cuisine enthusiasts flocked the Antipodes Greek Festival in Melbourne this weekend, February 24 and 25, taking place in the heart of Melbourne’s Greek Precinct on Lonsdale Street.

An extraordinary line-up of performers, artists, and fun activities, such as the famous “Zorba tiil you drop” dance competition, celebrated Greek heritage providing free entertainment to visitors.

Attendees of the lively event were also presented with dozens of stalls selling the best Greek foods and produce for everyone to enjoy.

“The City of Melbourne is proud to support the festival’s 36th year and celebrate our thriving Greek community and its influence on our marvellous city,” Lord Mayor Sally Cap AO said in a statement.

Greek culture is also celebrated at the Greek Festival of Sydney, which kicked off on Thursday at Darling Harbour. An initiative of the Greek Orthodox Community of New South Wales, the Greek Festival of Sydney runs each year from February to June with a wide range of activities and is now in its 42nd year.

Greek music takes center stage at Antipodes festival in Melbourne

The Antipodes festival in Melbourne, which attracts tens of thousands of visitors each year, opened with a concert by the Greek singer Melina Aslanidou on Saturday evening. Attendance exceeded 35,000 people.

The popular Greek performer gave a second concert at the Greek Festival of Sydney on Sunday.

Meanwhile, visitors of the Antipodes Greek Festival in Melbourne enjoyed two more concerts, by Momogeroi and Xylourides on Sunday. The two bands played Greek traditional music.

Dance groups performed on and off stage throughout the festive weekend. A total of six hundred talented performers unfolded their skills across the festival’s three stages in these two days.

Heart of the Greek-Australian Diaspora

Melbourne has the largest population of Greeks outside of Greece and is also a sister city to Thessaloniki.

The Greek-Australians left the homeland for many reasons, though the majority of immigrants came to Australia after World War II, when the Greeks arrived in the tens of thousands.

Suburban milk bars and fish and chips shops up to the 1980s were owned by Greeks, and restaurants serving Greek fare can be found throughout Melbourne, the Greek Quarter describes.

Greek immigrants have since contributed to all facets of Melbourne’s cultural and social life, politics at federal, State and local government levels, and sport.

Lonsdale St is host to the Lonsdale St Greek Festival, now in its 36th year. It is Melbourne’s biggest Greek street party, a weekend of Greek culture, food and entertainment, in the city’s historic Greek Precinct.

On the other hand, the Greek Orthodox Community of New South Wales (GOC) is the oldest and largest organised Greek community entity in Australia. It was established in 1897 to serve the spiritual, cultural and socio-economic needs of the Greek settlers and their children.

The community has been staging the Greek Festival of Sydney during the months of February, March, April, May and June since 1980. Its portfolio boasts a plethora of artistic and cultural events including the 2-day outdoor festival at Darling Harbour, a 10-day film festival in October, theatrical performances, exhibitions, concerts, lectures, music, folkloric activities and cross-cultural activities.

Epirus Trail: The Greek Mountain Adventure of Culture, History and Beauty

Epirus, Smolikas, Drakolimni , Dragonlake
credit: wikimedia commons / Kostas Tsobanoglou CC BY 4.0

The Epirus Trail which boasts an initial length of 370 km (230 miles), is a mountain adventure that crosses Epirus, from Mount Grammos to the Tzoumerka mountain range.

The longest hiking trail in Greece started taking shape in 2015, thanks to the Epirus Region and the “EPIRUS SA” Development Company.

Epirus Trail promotes the old road route through which people from Epirus would move to the mainland and other regions of Greece, or abroad, for centuries.

Papingo, Epirus, Greece
Papingo, Epirus, Greece. Credit: Dimitri Karagiorgos / CC1

The areas that cross the hiking trail include places of exceptional natural beauty, unique landscapes; an interesting man-made environment with unique cultural elements.

The Epirus Region aims to develop hiking tourism; and in general alternative tourism, as another development tool for the region. The creation and certification of Epirus Trail is of great importance; incorporating the concept of the old path into the modern tourist market.

The trail originally crosses the basic paths of the 4 Regional Units of Epirus which have a diverse network (Zagoria, Metsovo, Konitsa, North Tzoumerka), allowing visitors the opportunity to choose between shorter or longer hiking walks.

Highlights of the Epirus Trail

Some of the special interest points are the following:

1. It passes through the areas of 4 major mountainous municipalities of Epirus (Metsovo, Zagori, Konitsa, North Tzoumerka), and connects them.

2. It follows two parallel axes, on one side there is the Voidomatis river basin (Vikos gorge) and the Aoos river basin and then it moves side by side to the broader basin of river Arachthos.

3. It has three significant vertical branches, as follows:
a. “Typhi –Zagori mountains” (Tsepelovo-Vovousa) “,
b. “Ano Aoos” (Metsovo-Murgos-Vovousa),
c. “Aoos Gorge” (Vrysochori-Konitsa) “.

4. The main trail is 370 km long and the branches are around 80 km.

5. It will be gradually extended to neighboring Municipalities and neighboring Regions.

6. It passes through all existing mountain shelters (7).

7. It passes through sections of “classic” and other recognized paths, such as: “O3”, “E4”, “UrsaTrai”, “Zagori Mountain Trail”.

8. It passes through the three major towns of Metsovo, Konitsa and Pramanta.

9. It passes through 25 mountainous settlements and close to so many others.

10. It goes through the two “old” and internationally – known National Forests of “Pindos-ValiaCalda” and “Vikos-Aoos”.

11. It passes through the North Pindos National Park and the Vikos-Aoos Geopark (Unesco Natural Heritage Site and recorded in the Guinness Book) as well as the “Tzoumerka, Peristeri and Arachthos Gorge National Park “.

12. It crosses nine areas of the “Natura 2000” network of protected areas.

13. It passes through more than 12 listed traditional settlements and many monuments, such as holy monasteries (at least 10), stone bridges (at least 15).

14. It mainly passes through old paths and road arteries.

The Epirus Trail is the route of culture, history, and adventure.

Greece Braces for Intense Storms and Heavy Rainfall

Lightning strikes.
Greece will be battered by heave rain and storms from Sunday evening until the early morning hours of Tuesday. Credit: AMNA

Heavy rain and storms are expected across Greece from Sunday evening, according to an emergency weather warning issued on Saturday by the Greek National Meteorological Service (EMY).

The stormy weather is forecast to sweep the country, starting in the west, and spreading to the central and eastern mainland, the Cyclades islands and Crete and, lastly, the Eastern Aegean and Dodecanese Islands.

The bad weather will be accompanied by near-gale-force winds of up to 8 Beaufort and possibly hail.

The phenomena will last until the early morning hours of Tuesday.

As per usual, the Hellenic Fire Service is in operational readiness and is advising citizens to follow safety instructions to avoid getting into danger during the bad weather.

Stormy weather to batter mainland and islands

The rain will start in the Ionian islands, west and south Peloponnese and western Crete on Sunday night, meteorologists have warned.

By Monday morning, the bad weather is expected to spread to central Macedonia, Thessaly, eastern Central Greece (including briefly in Attica), the Cyclades Islands and mainly southern Crete.

It will also briefly affect western Macedonia and the Peloponnese, with the wet weather abating in the afternoon, while the islands of the eastern Aegean south of Chios, and the Dodecanese, will start to be affected just before noon.

The rain and storms are forecast to continue in southern parts of the Dodecanese islands until noon on Tuesday.

Marine warnings were also issued by EMY.

Hellenic Fire Service and Police ready to assist

The operational plan of the Hellenic Fire Service is being implemented to deal with risks from the occurrence of floods and their accompanying phenomena, while the local departments of the areas to be affected have been placed in a state of increased readiness and further escalation if required, in order to deal immediately with any problems caused by the severe weather phenomena.

The General Secretariat of Civil Protection of the Ministry of Climate Crisis and Civil Protection has warned the competent government agencies, as well as the regions and municipalities of the country, to be on increased civil protection readiness.

They recommend that citizens be particularly careful, taking measures to protect themselves from risks arising from the heavy rainfall, storms and gale-force winds.

Latest information about the prevailing situation and the passability of the road network in case of inflow of flood waters or due to snowfall and frost, will be posted on the website of the Hellenic Police.

World’s Oldest Known Decimal Point Discovered in Italy

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World’s Oldest Known Decimal Point
The world’s oldest known decimal point from Bianchini’s “Tabulae primi mobilis B.” Credit: Glen Van Brummelen / Historia Mathematica / CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

Newly discovered notes from 15th-century Italy show that the decimal point is actually 150 years older than what historians previously believed.

Decimal points may seem basic, but they’re incredibly helpful in math. They divide whole numbers into tenths, hundredths, and thousandths, which makes calculations a lot easier compared to using fractions.

Some forms of decimals have been around since the 900s in Damascus and the 1200s in China, as reported by Live Science.

A solid system of decimals didn’t become fully established until 1593. This happened when the German mathematician Christopher Clavius included decimals in astronomical work.

However, recent studies propose that Clavius was actually following an older practice. He likely adopted the use of decimals from Giovanni Bianchini, a Venetian merchant from the 15th century.

Decimal point is a century and a half older than Clavius’ use

The authors of the latest research say that Bianchini’s work, dating back to between 1441 and 1450, precedes Clavius’ use of the decimal point by a century and a half.

Glen Van Brummelen, a mathematics historian at Trinity Western University in Canada, stumbled upon Bianchini’s use of decimals while teaching a math camp for middle school students.

Van Brummelen recalls his excitement, rushing through the dormitory halls with his computer, eager to share his discovery. He shouted, “Look at this, this guy is doing decimal points in the 1440s!”

The concept of dividing whole numbers into smaller parts has ancient roots, but before the Middle Ages, most mathematicians leaned towards using fractions. Although astronomers did use decimals, their method differed from the familiar base-10 system taught in elementary school.

Instead, they utilized base-60 decimals. This involved dividing circles, such as the 360-degree circle, into sixty minutes, which could further be broken down into sixty seconds, as reported by Live Science.

In a paper published online for the journal Historia Mathematica, Van Brummelen noted that, occasionally, mathematicians did experiment with notations resembling today’s decimal system. However, these concepts often failed to gain traction and weren’t consistently adopted by subsequent mathematicians.

Decimal point first seen in Bianchini’s “Tabulae primi mobilis B”

Van Brummelen highlighted that while pinpointing the exact origins of decimal notation can be challenging, the history of the decimal point is comparatively clearer. This enduring symbol first emerges in Bianchini’s “Tabulae primi mobilis B,” a work focused on computing stellar coordinates.

Bianchini, originally a merchant, later served as an administrator to Venice’s ruling d’Este family. In this role, he was tasked with calculating horoscopes and engaging in astrology.

Within his text, Bianchini used the decimal point in a manner similar to modern mathematicians, marking a significant early usage of this decimal point.

The Greek Monkey Mystery, an Important Clue to Bronze Age World

Monkeys ancient greeks
Detail from the “Blue Monkeys” fresco at Akrotiri paintings, Santorini. Credit: Zde/ Wikimedia Commons/ CC BY-SA 4.0

Ancient frescoes like that of the Greek monkeys on Santorini suggest Europe and south Asia had trade links as long as 3,600 years ago. 

By Tracie McKinney & Marie Nicole Pareja Cummings

The blue monkeys painted on the walls of Akrotiri on the Greek island of Santorini are among many animals found in the frescoes of this 3,600-year-old city. Historians have studied the murals for decades since they were unearthed in the 1960s and 1970s on the island, which was once known as Thera. But when we and a team of other primatologists recently examined the paintings, we realized the monkeys could provide a clue that the Bronze Age world was much more globalized than previously thought.

Archaeologists had assumed the monkeys were an African species with which the Aegeans who built Akrotiri probably came into contact via trade links with Egypt. However, we think the paintings actually depict Hanuman langurs, a species from the Indian subcontinent. This suggests the Aegeans, who came from Crete and the Cycladic islands in the Aegean Sea, may have had trade routes that reached over 2,500 miles.

The wall paintings of Akrotiri were preserved by ash from a volcano that destroyed the city some time in the 16th or 15th century BC and offer an incredible glimpse of an early civilization in Europe. We haven’t been able to translate the earliest Aegean writing, but the paintings suggest just how developed these people’s society, economy, and culture were.

Much animal art from this period is generalized, meaning it’s hard to confidently identify individual species. In the case of the monkeys, we also don’t have any physical remains from Aegean settlements to provide additional evidence of which species are depicted.

The reason why archaeologists and art historians have assumed they came from Egypt is because that was the nearest location with an indigenous monkey population that had known trade links with the Aegean. As a result, the Akrotiri monkeys have been variously identified as baboons, vervets, and grivet monkeys, all African species that live across a wide area.

Marie Pareja decided to take a different approach, gathering a team of primatologists who study apes, monkeys, and lemurs, including renowned taxonomic illustrator, Stephen Nash. Together, we examined photos of the art and discussed the animals depicted, considering not only fur color and pattern but also body size, limb proportions, sitting and standing postures, and tail position. While we all agreed that some of the animals depicted were baboons, as previously thought, we began to debate the identification of the animals from one particular scene.

Identifying the langurs of the Greeks’ monkeys

The monkeys in the paintings are grey-blue, but although some living monkeys have small patches of blue skin—the blue on a mandrill’s face, for example—none have blue fur. There is an African forest monkey called the blue monkey, but it is mainly olive or dark grey, and the face patterns don’t match those in the paintings. So we needed to use other characteristics to identify them.

They were previously believed to be vervets or grivets, small monkeys weighing between 3kg and 8kg (roughly the size of a housecat) that are found in the savannas of north and east Africa. Despite their silvery-white fur, they also have dark-colored hands and feet and an overall look that matches the depictions in the paintings.

However, Hanuman langurs, which weigh a more substantial 11 kg to 18 kg, have a similar look. They also move quite differently, and this was crucial to the identification.

Both primates primarily live on the ground (as opposed to in trees) and have long limbs and tails. But the langurs tend to carry their tail upward, as an S- or C-shape or curving towards the head while vervets carry their tail in a straight line or arcing downward. This tail position, repeated across multiple images, was a key factor in identifying the monkeys as Hanuman langurs.

International links

We know from archaeological evidence that Aegean peoples had access to minerals such as tin, lapis lazuli, and carnelian that came from beyond the Zagros mountains on the western border of modern Iran. But the artistic detail of the Akrotiri paintings, compared to other monkey art of the period, suggests that artists had seen live animals, perhaps while traveling abroad.

It’s understandable that earlier scholars thought the monkeys were African since relations between the Aegean and Egypt were already well-known and supported by archaeological evidence. If you expect to find an African monkey, you will only look at African animals for possible explanations. But as primatologists, we were able to bring a fresh look at the evidence without preconceived notions of ancient peoples or trade routes and consider species living further afield.

This study is an excellent example of the importance of academics from different disciplines working together. Without the expertise of primatologists, it may not have been possible to confidently identify these animals. Conversely, primatologists may not have considered these ancient human-primate interactions without a prompt from archaeologists.

Tracie McKinney is a Senior Lecturer in Human Biology, University of South Wales.

Marie Nicole Pareja Cummings is a Consulting Scholar, Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania.

This article was published in The Conversation and is republished under a Creative Commons License.

Expedition to Recover $20B Gold Treasure from San Jose Shipwreck Begins

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San Jose Shipwreck gold treasure
San Jose galleon shipwreck is believed to have been carrying 200 tons of treasure, including gold, silver, and emeralds. Credit: Colombian Presidency

The Colombian government has announced the launch of an underwater recovery expedition to salvage treasures from the San Jose galleon, a historic shipwreck lying off the coast of Cartagena.

Often referred to as the “Holy Grail of shipwrecks,” it is believed to have been carrying 200 tons of treasure, including gold, silver, and emeralds. This initiative, set to begin with the aid of advanced robotic technology, specifically involves deploying an underwater robot to recover its bounty.

San Jose: the Spanish shipwreck that holds $20B gold treasure

The San José, a 62-cannon, three-masted Spanish galleon, met its watery grave on June 8, 1708, during a fierce battle against the British in the War of Spanish Succession. With approximately 600 men aboard, the ship sank near the Colombian port of Cartagena, taking down an estimated 200 tons of gold, silver, and emeralds from the mines of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

The wreck is estimated to be worth billions of dollars based on speculation that it had up to 11 million 4-doubloons (i.e., 11 million 8 escudos gold coins or 11 million coins, each weighing 27 grams of 92% gold, totaling 8.8 million troy ounces AGW, or $11.5 billion) and many silver coins on board at the time of its sinking, similar to its surviving sister ship, San Joaquín.

That would make the multi-deck vessel among the richest sunken ships ever discovered. The silver and gold are from the mines of Potosí, Bolivia. For years, the San José was the subject of lore and speculation until a team of Colombian navy divers, under the auspices of the government, discovered the wreck in 2015, lying at about 3,100 feet deep.

San Jose Shipwreck
Released photos of the 300-year-old San Jose shipwreck, thought to contain billions of dollars in gold coins and other treasure. Credit: Armada de Colombia

The Historical Significance of the San Jose Galleon

The San Jose galleon is not just a shipwreck with treasures; it is a floating testament to the maritime prowess and economic ambitions of the Spanish Empire in the 18th century. Its sinking was a pivotal moment in the War of Spanish Succession, affecting the global balance of power at the time. The ship’s cargo was intended to finance the Spanish crown’s military campaigns in Europe.

Legal and Ethical Considerations of the

The lifting of the San José wreck, which sank more than 300 years ago, comes amid an ongoing dispute over who owns the treasure. The announcement of the recovery operation follows years of legal wrangling and negotiations involving Colombia, Spain, and several private entities, each laying claim to the ship’s riches.

Colombia’s stance has been clear: the San Jose galleon is an integral part of its underwater cultural heritage, protected by UNESCO conventions to which the country is a signatory. The Colombian government asserts that the recovery of the San Jose’s treasures will be carried out with the utmost respect for archaeological and ethical standards, ensuring that the artifacts are preserved for educational and cultural purposes. 

Technological Marvels and Future Prospects

The use of robotic technology is essential in the recovery of the shipwreck. These unmanned vehicles are capable of delicately navigating the challenging depths where the San Jose galleon rests, minimizing the risk of damage to the shipwreck and its surroundings.

The San Jose galleon’s recovery mission is a complex undertaking that involves not only technical and logistical challenges but also questions of cultural heritage, international law, and ethical stewardship. As this piece of submerged history surfaces, the treasures of San Jose will shed more light on the historical narratives of the colonial era and the transatlantic exchanges that shaped the modern world.

Scientists Decode Golden Ratio of Ancient Greek Riace Bronze Statues

Riace bronze Greek statue in Italy
One of the famous ancient Greek Riace Bronzes was found to have had its teeth designed following the mathematical value of the golden ratio. Credit: /Wikimedia Commons/

One famous ancient Greek statue discovered in the Ionian Sea off the coasts of southern Italy in 1972 was studied over the methodology by which it was created, some 2,500 years ago, and its teeth were confirmed to have been designed following the golden ratio of the ancient Greeks that is also used in modern-day dentistry.

Knowing that, at the time of the estimated origin of the so-called Riace Bronzes, the golden proportion principles which would guide classical art and concepts of aesthetic balance of the modern age were known and used, experts from the University of Sapienza in Rome, Italy, started their research in 2022.

The aim of this innovative study was to determine the dentofacial characteristics and the presence of golden ratios in the so-called “young-man” warrior statue, which features a precious and unique detail of its kind: silver foil to represent the upper teeth.

The research concluded that the design of this particular bronze statue indeed stems from the search for beauty as divine proportion, and revealed that even a relatively small detail such as the statue’s face and teeth seems to have been carefully programmed by its masterful ancient Greek sculptor following the mathematical value of 1:1.6181 to achieve the ideal harmonic proportions in human representations.

Although many studies have been conducted on the statues since their discovery, this is the first morphometric study to delve into their facial features.

Archaeological importance of the Riace Bronzes

More than half a century after their discovery in the Ionian Sea near Riace Marina in 1972, the Riace Bronzes continue to fascinate and interest art enthusiasts and archaeology scholars.

The pair of statues was most likely sculpted in Greece between 450-460 BC, and are considered masterpieces of Classical Greek sculpture. The sculptor is not known, even if many are somewhat inclined to attribute the figures to the famous Greek sculptors Phidias or Myron.

They probably were lost at sea between the 1st to 2nd century BC when the ancient Romans looted large quantities of Greek artwork and transported them to present-day Italy.

Made of cast bronze, the favorite metal of Greek artists of classical antiquity, the two statues are among only twelve surviving ancient Greek bronze statues, because bronze was a material always in demand for reuse in later periods.

Ancient Greek golden ratio is the secret to harmonious smile until today

The two nude male figures, slightly larger than life size, represent two warriors. Various theories have been suggested about their identity.

The position of the body and the expression of the first statue’s face seem to convey the moment before a fight, in which the “young man” continues with a threatening attitude toward the second statue and a grin on his face that reveals his silver foil teeth.

Although the teeth are not completely exposed, they are sufficiently visible to evaluate some dimensional characters useful for further analysis, which prompted scientists from the Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences to join forces with the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies in raising a question of scientific, historical, and cultural interest on the original methodological framework by which the Riace bronzes were created, which to date no one had ever considered.

In fact, the same golden aesthetic proportion that was verified to have been applied in the creation of the 2,500 year-old statue’s face and teeth, still plays an important role in modern-day dentistry, as well as in figurative arts, the study observes.

“The factors that most affect smile aesthetics are the relationship of upper incisors in terms of respective length and width and the ratio of visible width of central incisors to lateral incisors and canines,” it describes.

“For a harmonious smile, the teeth must be proportional to each other but they must also be proportional to the face. Both the size and the shape of the teeth affect a good and balanced aesthetic appearance in relation to the face.”

Further studies, possibly carried out with direct measurements on statues or 3D models, could confirm the data and analysis of golden ratios that were reported by the University of Sapienza team of experts.

Former SYRIZA Minister Confirms Candidacy Against Stefanos Kasselakis

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Olga Gerovasili at the podium of the SYRIZA congress in Athens, February 24, 2024.
Olga Gerovasili will run against Stefanos Kasselakis in the upcoming SYRIZA party leadership vote in March. Credit: Twitter / Olga Gerovasili

Deputy Parliament speaker and former SYRIZA Minister Olga Gerovasili has confirmed her candidacy against Stefanos Kasselakis in a new party leadership vote which will take place on March 10—just five months after Kasselakis was elected party chairman.

The politician said she takes on the challenge that was presented to participants by the newly-appointed SYRIZA leader on Friday. She announced her candidacy during her speech at the SYRIZA congress in Athens on Saturday evening, stating that she shares the responsibility to “halt the downhill slide” of SYRIZA.

Her announcement was met with mixed reactions by attendees.

“A few months before the European Parliament elections, our party is sinking into introversion,” Gerovasili said. “We have to give it a way out. We cannot leave things as they are. We all have a responsibility. I bear a share of the responsibility, for the past and for the present.”

“Our opponent is Mitsotakis’ Right [party],” she added. “There are no opponents in here. Our congress is not an arena. No more enemies among us. No more division.”

SYRIZA leader Kasselakis proposes hybrid vote

Kasselakis welcomed Gerovasili’s candidacy and proposed that the party elections take place on March 10th, with an option for digital voting offered to members “in order to achieve the maximum possible participation.”

“I welcome the deputy speaker of the Parliament to the beautiful battle that will help the party love its members in practice,” he stated. “I promise to stay with the party regardless of the result, and work for the party.”

“I promise that if I win, the day after the elections I will invite the vice deputy speaker of the Parliament and her team to work together, so that we can bring about the constitutional changes we need,” Kasselakis added. “In the end the truth will win.”

Earlier on Saturday, some attendees tried to gather signatures to halt the new leadership vote, arguing that it is too early after Kasselakis’ election as party chairman.

The upcoming vote comes after the party’s former chairman Alexis Tsipras, who served as Greek Prime Minister from 2015 to 2019, urged his successor on Thursday to seek a renewed vote of confidence from the party’s membership ahead of its congress, which started that day.

His intervention was triggered by Kasselakis’ request to the party’s Political Secretariat on Wednesday for a three-year blank check which would allow him to retain the party leadership until the next national elections, regardless of the outcome of the European Parliament elections in June.

Eventually, on Thursday evening, Kasselakis challenged those who doubt his leadership to “find him an opponent” to which Gerovasili responded by announcing her candidacy against him.

Cleopatra, The Greek Queen of Ancient Egypt

cleopatra greek queen egypt
Cleopatra, the Greek queen of Ancient Egypt was depicted by Heinrich Faust in 1876. Credit: Public Domain

Cleopatra VII Philopater ruled over Ancient Egypt from 51 to 30 BC and was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. After her death, the Roman Empire took control of the country.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty was formed by Ptolemy I Soter, a Greek general in Alexander the Great’s army, in 305 BC. Although located in Egypt, the dynasty that Ptolemy established remained incredibly Greek.

Cleopatra, a direct descendant of Ptolemy, was the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language, as all those before her spoke only Greek. She was also believed to have spoken Ethiopian, Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, Syriac, Median, Parthian, and Latin.

Despite the fact that she ruled over Egypt, Cleopatra was Greek. The name Cleopatra comes from the Ancient Greek words κλέος (kléos), meaning “glory,” and πατήρ (pater), meaning “father,” which means “glory of her father.”

Renowned for her intellect and wit, Cleopatra was described as incredibly seductive and persuasive, qualities which added to her mystery throughout the centuries.

She has become a popular figure in media, literature, and art, and her enchanting qualities, romantic relationships, and beauty, which is debated, are often the focus of such works.

Most of the information available about Cleopatra’s life comes from Plutarch, who was born sixteen years after the Greek queen died.

Cleopatra’s struggle for power

Busts of Cleopatra
Ancient busts of Cleopatra. Credit: Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities / Facebook

According to surviving ancient sources, Cleopatra’s father was Ptolemy XII while her mother was likely Cleopatra V Tryphaena. When her father passed away, Cleopatra, who was eighteen at the time, was next in line for the throne followed by her brother Ptolemy XIII, who was 10.

The two siblings were to be married and rule together, but Cleopatra soon began to exert more power over her younger brother, which caused tension between the two.

The issue of two heirs proved bloody for the dynasty. Soon after she took the throne, Cleopatra’s advisers betrayed her, and she was forced to flee Egypt.

While in exile in Syria, Cleopatra amassed an army and set out to the outer reaches of Egypt to face her brother’s troops in a civil war.

As the war raged on, Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra’s brother, sanctioned the murder of the Roman general Pompey, who was Julius Caesar’s rival.

When Caesar was welcomed into Alexandra, the center of Ptolemaic Egypt, Cleopatra saw an opportunity to regain power. According to ancient sources, the queen snuck into the palace to meet Caesar and try to form an alliance with the Roman leader.

The pair had the same adversary—Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra’s brother. Caesar was in Egypt trying to receive the money that was owed to him after Cleopatra’s father died, and Ptolemy XIII was ready to fight a battle over paying the debt.

A war broke out between the outnumbered Roman forces and the Egyptian king, and the battle seemed all but decided until Roman reinforcements arrived. Upon the Roman army’s entry into Egypt, Ptolemy XIII’s forces crumbled, and he was forced to flee Alexandria. According to ancient sources, he later drowned in the Nile.

Caesar entered Alexandria as a conquering ruler and placed Cleopatra, along with her other younger brother Ptolemy XIV, on the throne.

Caesar remained in Alexandria for a time after returning the throne to Cleopatra, and it is heavily implied that he fathered the Greek queen’s son, Caesarion, or “Little Caesar,” before returning to Rome.

In 46 to 45 BC, Cleopatra and her son visited Caesar in Rome, and stayed in his villa. The Greek queen of Egypt stayed in Rome until Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, after which she returned to Egypt.

Shortly after her return to Egypt, her brother and co-ruler Ptolemy XIV was killed, likely on Cleopatra’s own orders. After her brother’s death, Cleopatra’s three-year-old son, Caesarion became the new co-ruler.

This setup was ideal for Cleopatra, as it provided her with a co-regent who was unwilling and incapable of betraying her, basically allowing her to rule on her own.

Throughout her reign, the Greek queen of Egypt also linked herself to various deities, such as Isis, which further cemented her role as ruler of the land.

Additionally, turmoil erupted in Rome in the wake of Caesar’s assassination, as his former allies, Mark Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus, fought for control against his assassins, Cassius and Brutus.

Both sides of the conflict sought out support from Cleopatra, and perhaps unsurprisingly, she offered Roman reinforcements that had been stationed in Egypt to support Caesar’s allies.

This aid likely contributed to the victory of Caesar’s allies, and after their win, Mark Antony and Octavian ruled over Rome.

Caesarion, Pharaoh, son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar
Pharaoh Caesarion, son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar. Credit: flickr / Carole Raddato cc by sa 2.0

Mark Antony and the Greek queen of Egypt

Mark Antony then invited the Greek queen to Tarsus, located in modern-day Turkey, to meet her in person. According to ancient sources, Cleopatra came dressed in the robes of the goddess Isis and dazzled the Roman leader.

Antony, taken by the queen of Egypt, pledged that he would support her rule in the country. When Cleopatra returned to Egypt, Mark Antony decided to leave his family, including his wife and children, to spend time in Alexandria.

While there, he carried on partying with Cleopatra. The pair even formed a drinking club called “The Inimitable Livers,” ostensibly as a group to honor the god Dionysus but likely to drink and revel.

Cleopatra gave birth to twins, Alexander Helios, which means sun, and Cleopatra Selene, which means moon, shortly after Antony returned to Rome in 40 BC.

As Cleopatra maintained power over Egypt, the country became one of the wealthiest and most influential in the Mediterranean. Antony even traveled to Egypt and sought financial support from Cleopatra for a military mission that his country could not afford.

Upon Cleopatra offering him the funds, Antony returned a number of countries that were once part of the Egyptian Empire, including Cyprus, Crete, Libya, and much of the Levant.

While Antony was staying in Egypt, Cleopatra gave birth to her son, Ptolemy Philadelphos, in 36 BC. Antony then refused to return to his wife in Rome and decided to stay in Egypt, where he declared that Cleopatra’s son, Caesarion, was Caesar’s true heir and even offered money and land to the three children he fathered with the queen.

Octavian, Antony’s co-ruler in Rome, had already been searching for a way to undermine his partner so that he himself could conquer the Roman world.

After learning of Antony’s antics in Egypt, Octavian decided to convince the Roman Senate to declare war on Egypt and Cleopatra, knowing that Antony would take her side, by saying that Antony was looking to establish a new Roman capital in the country.

This lead to the famous Battle of Actium, during which Octavian crushed Antony and Cleopatra’s forces. The couple were separated as they both fled to Alexandria. On the journey back to the Egyptian capital, Antony heard a rumor that his beloved had killed herself, so he fell on his own sword, only to die after learning that the rumor was not true.

Upon arriving in Alexandria, Cleopatra buried Antony and retreated to her chamber, where she took her own life. Plutarch states that she died at 39 after being bitten by an asp, a poisonous snake, which was a symbol of divine royalty. Other sources claim that she poisoned herself.

The death of both of his rivals allowed Octavian to take sole control of both Rome and Egypt, and with this consolidation of power, Octavian, renamed Augustus, became the first Roman Emperor.

Cleopatra’s legacy as an exotic, seductive, and powerful ruler of Egypt has persisted throughout the centuries. While she is now popularly known for her love affairs, suicide, and beauty, Plutarch actually stresses that she was not very attractive physically, but that her charm and intelligence was irresistible.

The Greek queen of Ancient Egypt has become a popular symbol of powerful, seductive women, with countless films, paintings, and stories written in her honor.