The ancient theater at Thassos has been restored with white marble from local quarries. Credit: AMNA
After eleven years, the ancient theater of Thassos, one of the oldest in Greece, reopens to the public in mid-May, following the completion of extensive restoration work.
The theater has been restored to the phase it was in during Roman times and is now completely clad in the famous white marble mined in the island’s quarries.
Built in the 4th century BC on the slopes of a hill to the east of the ancient city of Thassos (the current capital of the island, Limenas), the ancient theater with its unparalleled view of the sea is preparing to enter a new period of operation, more than century after it was first discovered.
The oldest phase of construction of the theatre of Thassos dates back to the beginning of the Hellenistic period (late fourth – first quarter of the third century BC). The theatre had a stage building with a marble facade. The rows of seats are made of simple marble blocks without curvatures, except for the seats found in the lower part of the koilon.
From the 1st century AD, the theatre was used for animal hunts and gladiator fights. The conversion of the theatre into an arena took place at the time of the Roman dynasty of the Severans (late 2nd – early 3rd century AD).
The work of restoring this monumental theater was perhaps one of the most difficult technical projects carried out in recent years by the Ephorate of Antiquities of Kavala – Thassos.
The hollow of the theater was excavated from its foundations to restore past damages, provide a solution to static issues, and complete important infrastructure that would ensure its modern function as a space that can host cultural and artistic events.
The theater was restored with white marble from Thassos’s quarries
“The restoration work on the hollow turned out to be extremely problematic and much more extensive than originally anticipated,” explains the project supervisor, archaeologist Constantina Panousis, speaking to the Athens-Macedonia News Agency (AMNA).
“What we had to deal with in the ancient theater of Thassos was a great challenge, especially in terms of the supply of marble…The analysis of the material that was made in the ancient benches showed us the type and composition of the marble used in antiquity, and based on this, a similar marble was ordered from a quarry on the island,” she added.
Until 2013, when the theater was permanently closed to start the restoration work, the theater seats were made of wood, resting on metal platforms, which were installed in the 1990s.
The former mayor of the island, Kostas Hadjiemmanouil says he feels vindicated with the result. “I feel that I won a personal bet and fulfilled a commitment I made to Thassos when in 2010 I promised that I would throw away the rotten plywood from the island’s ancient theater and replace it with all-white Thassos marble.”
Current Mayor Lefteris Kyriakidis, says that the opening of the ancient theater to visitors is a very important development and notes that the municipality intends to host events there when conditions allow.
Armenian people are marched to a nearby prison in Mezireh by armed Ottoman soldiers. Kharpert, Ottoman Empire, April 1915. The Armenian Genocide was officially recognized by the USA in April 24, 2021. Credit: Wikipedia
The Armenian Genocide, the systematic mass murder and expulsion of 1.5 million ethnic Armenians carried out in Turkey and adjoining regions by the Ottoman government between 1914 and 1923, is commemorated on April 24th every year.
The Armenian Genocide was an atrocity that occurred within the context of a wider religious cleansing across Asia Minor that lasted 10 years and included Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians. They were all Christians who were also subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
The religious cleansing was actually the first in modern times, and it fit the pattern of genocides that would follow in the century ahead.
It is worth noting that the Nazis in the following decades were transfixed by the events that occurred in Turkey in those nightmarish years of mass killings and deadly deportations—and saw in them a pattern that they could emulate for their own twisted ends.
The Armenians, in many ways, bore the brunt of the slaughter, but ethnic Greeks and Assyrians were also massacred in similar ways—and for the same reason: They were scapegoats in a crumbling empire that saw Christians as a dangerous and potentially treasonous population inside the country.
There was a strong nationalistic impulse to create a “Turkey for the Turks,” and that meant a homogeneous population based on “Turkishness” and the Muslim faith.
The persecution of Armenians began in 1914
Initially, it was just a campaign of boycotting Armenian businesses and shops. But within months, it culminated in acts of violence and the murder of key Armenian politicians and persons of importance. By April 15, 1915, almost 25,000 Armenians were slain in the province of Van.
On April 24, 1915, the Ottomans arrested 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Constantinople and sent them to Chankri and Ayash, where they were later murdered.
On the same day, the editors and staff of Azadamart, the leading Armenian newspaper of Constantinople, were arrested, to be executed on June 15th in Diyarbekir, where they had been taken and imprisoned.
The Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople and Zohrab, an Armenian deputy in the Ottoman Parliament, petitioned the Turkish authorities on behalf of the arrested Armenians of Constantinople. The answer was that the government was dissolving the Armenian political organizations.
Within nine months, more than 600,000 Armenians were massacred. Of those who were deported during that time, more than 400,000 died of the brutalities and privations of the southward march into Mesopotamia, raising the number of victims to one million. This became known to the rest of the world outside Turkey as the Armenian Genocide.
In addition, 200,000 Armenians were forcibly converted to Islam to give Armenia a new Turkish sense of identity and strip Armenians of their historical past as the first Christian state in the world.
On August 30, 1922, Armenians who were living in Smyrna were victims of yet more Turkish atrocities. The “Smyrna Disaster” of 1922, which was aimed at Christian Greeks who were living in the seaside city, involved thousands of Armenians as well. Turkish soldiers and civilians set all the Greek and Armenian neighborhoods on fire, forcing Greeks and Armenians to flee to the harbor, where thousands were killed or drowned.
Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day is a national holiday in Armenia. Credit Wikipedia
On April 24, 1919, prominent figures of the Armenian community who had survived the atrocities held a commemoration ceremony at the St. Trinity Armenian church in Istanbul. Following its initial commemoration in 1919, the date became the annual day of remembrance for the Armenian Genocide.
Yet, somehow, ever since the horrific events of 1915, Turkey has methodically denied the fact that the Armenian genocide occurred. Despite Turkish denials, the genocide has been unanimously verified by the International Association of Genocide Scholars, and become internationally recognized with the intention of upholding moral responsibility above political purposes.
“Each year on this day, we remember the lives of all those who died in the Ottoman-era Armenian genocide and recommit ourselves to preventing such an atrocity from ever again occurring,” the American President said.
An active volcano in Antarctica is shooting $6,000 in gold dust into the air every single day, NASA’s Earth Observatory revealed last week.
The volcano on Mount Erebus spits pockets of gas containing 80 grams of crystallized gold daily, it said.
Mount Erebus, is arguably Antarctica’s most famous volcano. It holds the titles of the tallest active volcano on the continent, with its summit reaching 12,448 feet (3,794 meters), and the southernmost active volcano on Earth.
Named after the personification of darkness in Greek mythology, Mount Erebus was erupting when Captain Sir James Clark Ross first discovered it in 1841. It sits alongside two other volcanoes on Ross Island, which bears the name of the aforementioned British explorer.
The new finding remains consistent with the 1991 spotting of gold emission from the volcano. Both then and now, researchers have detected gold particles in the volcanic gases emitted by the volcano, as well as in surrounding snow.
Gold deposits likely originated from volcanic rock
When lava from the mountain emits hot gas, this carries some of the gold particles into the air.
Mount Erebus apparently spits gold flecks measured between ‘0.1 and 20 micrometers’ in the volcanic gases and ’60 micrometers’ in surrounding snow.
This volcano is among Antarctica‘s 138 active volcanoes. Located on Ross Island in Antarctica, the volcano holds importance due to a tragic event in 1979 when Air New Zealand Flight 901 crashed into its side, resulting in the loss of all passengers and crew.
Gold detected 621 miles from Erebus’ volcano
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Earth Observatory reported that the precious metal dust has been detected as far as 621 miles from Erebus’ southernmost lava-spewer. This is 12,448 feet high (3,794.02 meters), as part of other spewing phenomena.
NASA stated, “It regularly emits plumes of gas and steam and occasionally spits out rock (bombs).”
Conor Bacon of Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University, New York, says that this volcano has been continuously erupting since 1972.
Bacon said that Erebus is also understood to comprise a “lava lake” at one of its summit craters.
Minimal impact on the gold market
While the concept of a volcano that spews gold daily is fascinating, its impact on global demand for gold would likely be minimal unless the conditions for collection and processing undergo significant changes, making it much more economically practical, per Mugglehead.com.
The impact of a volcano that produces about 80 grams of gold per day is minimal when considered against the global annual gold production of over 3,000 tones, making the volcanic contribution relatively insignificant.
Even if collectors could efficiently gather this gold and integrate it into the global market, there might be a slight increase in the overall gold supply.
However, the challenging and remote conditions of Antarctica pose significant logistical hurdles that could prevent this.
Additionally, the costs of extracting and transporting the gold from such an inhospitable location are likely to outweigh the value of the gold itself, rendering the operation economically unfeasible with current technology and market prices, Mugglehead.com says.
Byzantine general George Maniakes who chalenged emperor Michael IV, leads a cavalry charge against the Arabs. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
After the tremendously successful reign of Basil II, the eleventh century signaled a turn of fortunes in a far more negative direction for the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, marked by military defeats and decline.
However, George Maniakes, a Byzantine general, was an exception to the rule during what was otherwise a lackluster period of the Byzantine Empire. Maniakes stood quite literally as a giant on the battlefield owing to his imposing stature, but he was also a supremely capable tactician and commander.
The historian John Julius Norwich described Maniakes as “the glorious, tempestuous, ill-starred” preeminent Byzantine general of his age. Indeed, Maniakes’ life was marked by the highest of highs and the lowest of lows. He was an excellent commander who fought in Anatolia, the Middle, East, Sicily, and Greece. But he was also prone to bouts of fury and was ill-adapted to the intrigues of the Byzantine imperial court.
Character and appearance
According to contemporary sources, Maniakes was an imposing figure both in terms of his stature and the aura of his personality. He was tall and well-built and possessed a disposition prone to anger. The soldiers under his command were keen to follow him and his enemies feared his reputation.
Michael Psellos, a Byzantine monk, historian, scholar, imperial courtier, and music theorist, had seen Maniakes in person and gave an account, writing that “I have seen this man myself, and I wondered at him, for nature had bestowed on him all the attributes of a man destined to command.”
“He stood ten feet high and men who saw him had to look up as if at a hill or the summit of a mountain,” Psellos continues in a rather exaggerated fashion. “There was nothing soft or agreeable about the appearance of Maniakes. As a matter of fact, he was more like a fiery whirlwind, with a voice of thunder and hands strong enough to make walls totter and shake gates of brass. He had the quick movement of a lion and the scowl on his face was terrible to behold.”
From a lowborn to a Byzantine general
Little is known about Maniakes’ early life. His father was called Goudelios and was possibly of Slavic or Armenian origin. However, we can assume that Maniakes was not born into wealth or status based on the start of his career in the Byzantine army as a baggage handler.
Maniakes’ first appearance in the historical records was in 1030. By the age of 33, he had risen through the ranks to become a strategos, a local district commander. At this time he held authority over the provincial fortress of Telouch (modern Duluk), the capital of the thema (military district) of the same name on the Anatolian-Syrian border.
Maniakes came to prominence when a force of about 800 Arab horsemen besieged Telouch. The Arabs arrived falsely proclaiming that the Byzantine Emperor Romanos III Argyros had been killed in battle. The Mirdasid Emirate of Aleppo had indeed defeated Romanos at the Battle of Azaz but the emperor escaped and was very much alive.
The Byzantine cavalry are depicted being routed by the pursuing Arabs at the Battle of Azaz. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
Maniakes and his men were outnumbered and watched as the Arabs paraded trophies they had won at Azaz beneath the walls of Telouch. Maniakes agreed to surrender and sent the enemy wagons of food and wine as a gesture of goodwill.
However, the Byzantine general’s surrender was merely a ploy to goad the Arabs into a false sense of security. Maniakes waited until night had fallen and the enemy had become drunk on all the wine he had sent them before springing his trap. He sallied out from the fortress with his men under the cover of darkness and slaughtered the besieging Arabs.
After this victory, Maniakes sent Romanos blood-stained bags full of the severed ears and noses of the enemy as well as 280 camels laden with booty that had been seized by the Arabs from the Byzantine baggage train at the Battle of Azaz. Romanos immediately promoted Maniakes to katepan (military governor) of the upper Euphrates Valley.
The seizure of Edessa in Syria by the Byzantine army and the Arabic counterattack from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
With greater power and resources now at his disposal, Maniakes turned his attention to the city of Edessa which had fallen from Byzantine control four centuries earlier. Maniakes launched a surprise attack at night and seized three of the city’s heavily reinforced towers.
Maniakes’ army was then besieged both by the inhabitants of the city and a large force sent by the Emir, but they were able to hold out until Byzantine reinforcement arrived, winning both the battle and the city.
George’s brilliance as a commander made him indispensable. Maniakes single-handedly prevented the collapse of Byzantine Syria after the Batte of Azaz & even captured the city of Edessa through his daring. Maniakes would later be sent to Italy & Sicily at the head of an army. pic.twitter.com/v3Lc2bpACr
In 1034, Emperor Michael IV, who had succeeded Romanos, appointed Maniakes as governor of Vaspurakan, a sizeable and significant thema on the Byzantine Empire’s northeastern frontier.
In 1038, Michael then appointed Maniakes as governor of the southern Italythema and head of the military expedition to recapture Sicily. Sicily had been under Arab control since 965. From here, Arab pirates and raiders constantly harassed the Byzantine territories of Southern Italy. A civil war between the emir of Sicily and his brother provided the Byzantines with an opportunity to wrestle back control of the strategically important island.
The exact composition of Maniakes’ army is uncertain, but the core of his force was made up of Greek heavy cataphract cavalry (kataphractoi) supported by Armenian and Balkan infantry, as well as recruits from Southern Italy.
Modern reconstruction of Byzantine /Eastern Roman Cataphract armor. This example is from replicates armor used in the century before Maniakes, but would have been similar nonetheless. The set consists of a lamellar type “Klibanion”, splinted greaves, and vambraces. Credit: Dimitrios Katsikis
The Byzantine general also had a significant number of mercenaries under his command, including 300 Norman knights led by the D’Hauteville brothers, William Iron Arm, and Drogo, and Varangians led by the famous Harald Hardrada, who would later become the king of Norway. Hardrada would also have become the king of England if he had won the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066. There were also Lombard mercenaries from Italy.
The campaign was initially successful. Maniakes captured Messina and Rometta, despite the intervention of 5,000 Arab reinforcements, whom he defeated. From Rometta he advanced on the ancient city of Syracuse. The garrison at Syracuse held out long enough for the emir’s son, Abdallah ibn Muizz, to gather a force at Palermo and attempt to outmaneuver Maniakes, but the general learned of this and was able to set a trap.
The Byzantines surprised their enemy near Troina in the mountains of northeastern Sicily. Few details of the battle are known, but the Greek and Norman cavalry shattered the enemy and Maniakes won yet another victory. The garrison at Syracuse surrendered and the Byzantine army was greeted enthusiastically by the mostly Greek population who celebrated the end of 162 years of Muslim rule.
The Byzantines led by Maniakes land at Sicily and defeat the Arabs. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
The expedition starts to unravel
All that stood between Maniakes and the complete reconquest of Sicily was Palermo. However, events started to take an unfortunate turn for the Byzantine general, and his principal vice – his temper – may have had a lot to do with it.
First, there was a dispute with the mercenaries, who felt that they should have a greater share of the loot. The Normans asked a Greek-speaking Lombard officer named Arduin to appeal on their behalf but Maniakes was enraged and had him stripped and beaten. This led to the Norman and Lombard mercenaries abandoning the expedition and going to Southern Italy, where they joined a rebellion against the Byzantines.
Next, there was the escape of Abdallah, the emir’s son. Maniakes blamed Stephen, the commander of the Byzantine fleet, for his escape, since his ships were supposed to be blockading the coastline. Maniakes’ temper flared again and he physically struck Stephen several times whilst denouncing him for laziness and cowardice.
This proved unwise as Stephen was Michael IV’s brother-in-law. The humiliated naval commander wrote to the emperor that Maniakes was a traitor and the Byzantine general was thrown into prison without trial.
George Maniakes (center-left) loses his temper with Admiral Stephen (center-right). Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
Return and military expedition to Southern Itlay
A year later, Michael IV died whilst Maniakes was still in prison. Meanwhile, Stephen had been given overall command of the expedition to Sicily. He proved utterly incompetent and all of Maniakes’ hard-won victories were undone. Only Messina held out, as the force there was commanded by a capable general.
At the same time, the Lombard rebellion – aided by the Normans – was spreading across Southern Italy and a succession of Byzantine Katepans failed to quash it. In 1042, Maniakes was released from prison and granted the ranks of Katepan and magister, the highest rank outside of the imperial family. His task was to crush the rebellion.
Maniakes landed in Apulia and proceeded to capture Monopoli, Matera, and Geovinaazo from the Lombard rebels and their Norman allies. However, the campaign was again interrupted by political intrigue before it could be completed.
Byzantine manuscript depicting scenes from a battle in the 13th century. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
The giant Byzantine general turns against the emperor
The seeds of rebellion were planted by a Byzantine aristocrat called Romanos Skleros who used his position within the imperial court to poison Emperor Constantine IX against Maniakes. Skleros’s sister was the emperor’s mistress, so he held considerable sway over Constantine.
Maniakes and Skleros were not particularly fond of each other. The pair maintained neighboring estates in Anatolia and had apparently feuded over land. According to the historical account of John Skylitzes, Skleros pillaged the villages belonging to Maniakes and “desecrated the marriage bed” with his wife. Whilst Maniakes was busy fighting in Italy, Skelors may have been the one responsible for persuading the emperor that the Byzantine general was plotting a rebellion.
There are at least two accounts as to what happened next. The first is that Constantine IX sent a courtier named Pardus to replace Maniakes as leader of the military expedition. The emperor would offer Maniakes a pardon if he handed over command to Pardus peacefully.
According to this version of events, Parduls was not very tactful in his approach to Maniakes. He publicly accused and approached the general of treachery. Naturally, hurling a tirade of abuse at a veteran warrior famous for his enormous stature and even more enormous rages was not a very wise decision. As Maniakes raised his fist to strike, Pardus appealed to the soldiers in the general’s army to concur that this was a clear sign of his disloyalty. However, the soldiers had fought beside Maniakes through thick and thin and were unimpressed by Pardus. They killed him themselves without Maniakes having to lift a finger.
The other account is a far more personal tale of revenge. In this version of events, it was Romanos Skeloros who was sent to confront Maniakes, either to take charge of the army, as in the case with Pardus, or to confront him in battle. In either case, it did not end well for Skleros. Maniakes tortured his old rival to death by sealing his eyes, mouth, ears, and nose shut with excrement.
Whatever the truth may be, it is known that Maniakes’ troops proclaimed him emperor and he set sail for the Greek mainland to challenge Constantine IX. The emperor again sent an envoy to reach terms but when these were ignored he began to assemble his own army.
A modern depiction of Digenes Akritas depicted in the style of a Byzantine icon by Greek artist Dimitrios Skourtelis. Digenes Akritas was a larger-than-life fictional hero in Byzantine heroic poetry. George Maniakes was the real deal. Credit: Dimitrios Skourtelis / Reddit
Maniakes landed at Dyrrachium and intended to march along the ancient Roman road Via Egnatia to Constantinople via Thessaloniki. Constantine IX selected the eunuch Stephen of Pergamon to lead his army against Maniakes. This was an odd choice given Stephen’s lack of military experience.
The two forces met in battle in the summer of 1043 at the village of Ostrovo (Anissa) near Lake Vegoritida in Northern Greece. Despite being outnumbered, Maniakes seized the initiative and cast the imperial army into disarray with a daring cavalry charge.
At this point, the imperial army was close to breaking and some of Stephen’s troops already began to proclaim Maniakes as emperor. However, the grizzled Byzantine general who had stood as a giant upon the battlefield was struck by ill luck. Maniakes received a mortal wound, either from a lance or an arrow. He attempted to staunch the bleeding but wheeled and fell from his horse. The imperial soldiers rushed to cut off his head and bring it to Stephen.
Anachronistic depiction of a Byzantine imperial coronation by being raised on a shield and crowned. 11th-13th centuries. Credit: Unknown / Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
Although Maniakes had gained the upper hand in the battle, his death caused his army to lose resolve and his men broke and fled. The battle was lost and his captured soldiers were paraded in Constantinople seated backward on donkeys with their heads shaved and the words “shameful refuse” written across their bald patches. The head of Maniakes was placed on a pike and led the procession until it reached the Hippodrome where it was displayed for all to see.
According to Micael Psellos, when Maniakes was defeated, the emperor “with the air of a man who has been delivered from some great wave that was about to overwhelm him… gave thanks to God.”
All that remains is to wonder what would have happened if Maniakes had succeeded in his bid to claim the Byzantine throne. Would his military prowess have led the Byzantines into a new golden age, or would his quick temper and political ineptitude have led to ruin?
African Dust Storm intensifies in Greece. Credit: sjrankin. CC BY 2.0/flickr
An eerie, apocalyptic-like scene has befallen Greece with all-encompassing African dust sweeping across the nation. This was caught on camera plenty of times, and meteorologists have warned the phenomenon will be worsening today and continue into tomorrow afternoon, Wednesday, April 24th.
The high concentrations of dust are evident in Attica, with the atmosphere being almost suffocating over the last few hours. The phenomenon is expected to phase out by tomorrow noon. However, record concentrations have already been recorded on Crete as well as the Peloponnese.
There has been an increase in the number of patients with respiratory problems in hospitals, while pulmonologists are recommending caution and limited movement for vulnerable groups.
The ominous, dust-ridden scene in Greece was also highlighted in a post by the meteorologist Kostas Lagouvardou on Facebook. Lagouvardou uploaded a photo from the Observatory of Penteli accompanied by the words “Our colony on Mars.”
As is visible in photos and videos from Attica, an orange veil encompasses the basin, with the area around the Parliament and Acropolis also covered in African dust.
Photos and videos of African dust encompassing Greece can be seen below:
🚨New: The Saharan duststorm is turning the sky of Athens, Greece into a vibrant orange.pic.twitter.com/9iXo8nBF00
— The Calvin Coolidge Project (@TheCalvinCooli1) April 23, 2024
The situation in Messinia and particularly in the city of Kalamata is reportedly very bad, along with Ilia, at the port of Katakolo, on the beach of Karouta and in the area of Zaharos. Chania is also covered in red fog.
This natural dust phenomenon can have significant effects on the health of those living in Greece, primarily through the degradation of air quality, reports the Hellenic Pulmonology Association (EPE).
The organization highlights that African dust carried particles in a variety of sizes, such as PM10, PM2.5 and even smaller, and can also draw in pollutants from the atmosphere. A rise on certain particulates in the atmosphere can exacerbate respiratory conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, and allergies.
People with pre-existing respiratory conditions are especially vulnerable during periods of increased dust concentrations, which is also reflected in increased hospital admissions. Special attention should be paid to residents of urban centers and areas with already low air quality.
Effect on the respiratory system
One of the main adverse health effects of African dust is its influence over respiratory health. Fine dust particles can penetrate deep into the lungs and in some cases enter the bloodstream.
For those with conditions such as asthma, bronchitis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), exposure to these particles can exacerbate symptoms, resulting in shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing, and chest discomfort.
Some things to do to protect your health include staying informed, limiting outdoor activity, closing windows and doors, using masks, and staying hydrated.
Asthma patients may need to increase the dosage or frequency of their medications.
AI depiction of Boniface I, Marquis of Montferrat, the ruler of the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Credit: DALL-E 3 for the Greek Reporter
In the turbulent years following the conquest of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, a number of newly-born Latin and Byzantine Greek states emerged. These states were established to fill the power vacuum left by the shattered and tired Eastern Roman Empire, known today as the Byzantine Empire.
Among these new states was the Kingdom of Thessalonica, a short-lived but significant realm in the broader Greek region that had bold aspirations and goals. The aim of this kingdom was to restore the Byzantine Empire from its base in Northern Greece.
Ruled by Boniface of Montferrat and his successors, the Kingdom of Thessalonica played a very significant role in the politics of 13th-century Greece before its final collapse a few years later.
Origins and establishment of the Kingdom of Thessalonica
The Kingdom of Thessalonica finds its origins in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. In 1204, the Latin Crusaders captured and tragically sacked Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Following this devastating event, the Crusaders divided up the territories of the empire among themselves.
The first state that was created originated from the establishment of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Apart from this creation at the heart of the former empire, the Crusaders also established several other vassal states in the conquered Byzantine lands. One of these was the Kingdom of Thessalonica, founded by Boniface of Montferrat, a prominent leader of the crusade.
Boniface crowned himself King of Thessalonica in 1204 and ruled the kingdom as a vassal state of the broader Latin Empire. The kingdom was centered on the strategically important city of Thessalonica (modern-day Thessaloniki), which had been a major political, economic, and cultural hub in the Byzantine Empire. Thessalonica was known to the Romans as the “symbasileuousa,” meaning “co-reigning” in Greek.
This refers to the status of the city as the second most important settlement of the empire after Constantinople. The title has survived in time with modern-day Thessaloniki known in Greece today as the “symproteuousa,” meaning that it is honorarily the “co-capital” of Greece, second to Athens.
Boniface elected as leader of the Fourth Crusade, Soissons, 1201: History painting by Henri Decaisne, early 1840s, Salles des Croisades, Versailles. Credit: Henri Decaisne, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain
Who was Boniface of Montferrat?
Boniface I, Marquis of Montferrat, was an influential Italian nobleman and one of the leaders of the Fourth Crusade before he was crowned king of Thessalonica.
He was the third son of William V, Marquis of Montferrat, and Judith of Babenberg. After the death of his father in 1191 and his elder brother Conrad in 1192, Boniface became the Marquis of Montferrat.
He had close family ties to the Byzantine Empire and the Crusader states. His brothers William and Conrad both married into the royal family of Jerusalem, while his youngest brother, Renier, married the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor himself, who at the time was Manuel I Komnenos.
In 1201, after the original leader of the Fourth Crusade, Theobald III, Count of Champagne, died, Boniface was chosen to take his place. However, Boniface and the other leaders became embroiled in the politics of the Byzantine Empire rather than focusing on the mission of freeing the Holy Lands. This is how they ended up conquering Constantinople in 1204, establishing the Latin Empire.
Boniface was elected as the first King of Thessalonica. However, his reign was short-lived. In 1207, he was ambushed and killed by the Bulgarians, with his head being sent to Tsar Kaloyan.
Map of the Latin Empire and the Kingdom of Thessalonica within it. Credit: Ichthyovenator. Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0
Rulers and territories of the time
The Kingdom of Thessalonica was ruled by the Montferrat dynasty, starting, as we have seen, with Boniface I, who reigned from 1204 to 1207. After Boniface’s tragic death, he was succeeded by his young son, Demetrius.
Demetrius ruled from 1207 to 1224 under the regency of various nobles of the city and beyond. At its greatest extent under Boniface, the Kingdom of Thessalonica controlled vast territories in modern-day Macedonia, Thessaly, and parts of Thrace. The kingdom also held Greece’s second-largest island, Euboea (also spelled “Evia”), with the Duchy of Athens as its vassal state.
However, the kingdom’s borders were constantly shifting due to ongoing local wars and conflicts with its neighbors, particularly the Bulgarians and other Byzantine Greek successor states.
Politics and conflicts of the Kingdom of Thessalonica
As a state that was established by the Crusaders, the Kingdom of Thessalonica was not a fully independent realm with its own distinct presence in the geopolitical reality of the time. It was rather a vassal state of the Latin Empire that was based in Constantinople, which served as the main successor of the dismantled Byzantine Empire.
This meant that the Kingdom of Thessalonica was mostly caught up in the disputes, conflicts, and overall machinations and politics of the Latin Empire itself. The kingdom additionally faced numerous major threats from the Second Bulgarian Empire, which sought to conquer as many Byzantine territories as it could.
Furthermore, the Kingdom of Thessalonica was constantly threatened by the Byzantine Greek successor states such as the Despotate of Epirus and the Empire of Nicaea, which both aimed to restore the Byzantine Empire to its prior state and expel the Catholics from the Byzantine lands.
From 1209 to 1210, Latin Emperor Henry campaigned in Greece to defeat Epirus as well as Bulgaria, significantly supporting Thessalonica’s position. However, in the following years, the Despotate of Epirus under its ruler Theodore Komnenos Doukas steadily conquered territories that belonged to the Kingdom of Thessalonica, seizing much of Thessaly as well as Macedonia from 1215 to 1224.
Decline and fall of the Kingdom of Thessalonica
The death of Boniface I, only three years after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 was a major blow to the Kingdom of Thessalonica, which was left with a child ruler, Demetrius, and a series of regents. This significant political and strategic weakness was exploited by many of the enemies of the kingdom, particularly the Despotate of Epirus.
Under its ambitious ruler, Theodore Komnenos Doukas, Epirus steadily gained Thessalonica’s territories in the late 1210s and early 1220s. In 1224, Theodore captured Thessalonica itself, effectively annexing the kingdom to his Byzantine Greek state. The last king, Demetrius, fled into exile and later ceded his claim to Thessalonica to other rulers.
This important Greek city changed hands several times in the following decades. However, the Kingdom of Thessalonica itself was never revived. The city was eventually recovered by the Byzantine Empire of Nicaea, which went on to recapture Constantinople itself and restore the Byzantine Empire in 1261, 57 years after it capitulated to the Latins. The fall of Thessalonica to Epirus in 1224 officially marked the end of the Kingdom of Thessalonica after just two decades of existence.
The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Credit: Ichthyovenator, Wikimedia Commons, CC0.
Thus, the Kingdom of Thessalonica was an ambitious but ultimately short-lived attempt to establish a new power in the aftermath of the dismantling of the Byzantine Empire following the Fourth Crusade.
However, caught between the machinations and rival ambitions of the Latin Empire, the Bulgarians, and the Byzantine Greek successor states, Thessalonica struggled to maintain its independence and territories, giving it a more prominent role in history.
The kingdom managed to survive for two decades, but the death of its founder and relentless pressure from its numerous enemies, particularly Epirus, led to its rapid decline and eventual annexation to other formations. Though often overshadowed by larger and longer-lasting states, the Kingdom of Thessalonica does represent a notable chapter in the history of medieval Northern Greece.
Royal Navy names latest nuclear submarine after Greek mythology’s King Agamemnon. Credit: Defence Images. CC BY 2.0/flickr
The Royal Navy’s latest Astute Class submarine built by BAE Systems – due to be launched later this year – has been officially named Agamemnon, after the ancient Greek king.
Agamemnon was officially named at BAE Systems’ Submarines site in Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria, and is the sixth of seven Astute Submarines being built by the company.
She will be commissioned into the Royal Navy after being launched later this year.
The ceremony was attended by the Minister for Defence Procurement and included an address by the vessel’s Lady Sponsor, Lady SJ Sedwill, the wife of former UK National Security Adviser Lord Mark Sedwill.
Agamemnon was then blessed and christened, with a bottle of beer from the local Ulverston Brewing Company smashed against her hull.
“This is a key milestone for Agamemnon and the UK nuclear submarine programme, and contributes to the Government’s Defence Nuclear Enterprise Command Paper, which underpinned the importance of our business and Barrow in delivering this national endeavour,” Steve Timms, Managing Director, BAE Systems’ Submarines business told the UK Defence Journal.
He added, “The Astute Class submarines are a vital component of our nation’s defence capabilities and we are fully focused on completing the remainder of Agamemnon’s programme so she can join her sister submarines in service with the Royal Navy.”
Five Astute Class submarines are in service already, with work also well underway in Barrow on the seventh and final vessel.
“HMS Agamemnon will play a vital role in defence of the nation, providing our Armed Forces with a competitive edge for decades to come. The Astute Class programme continues to support tens of thousands of jobs, with these submarines being a leading example of our commitment to investing in British sovereign capabilities,” said Minister for Defence Procurement, James Cartlidge.
The Astute Class submarines are 97-meters-long and weighs 7,400 tonnes, with advanced nuclear technology which means the vessels never need to be refuelled. They can prodice their own oxygen and fresh water from the ocean and are able to circumnavigate the globe without surfacing.
The Astute Class is fitted with both Tomahawk Land Attack Cruise Missiles (TLAM) and Spearfish heavyweight torpedoes.
According to BAE Systems, “As the home of UK submarine design and build, the UK Government, through the Ministry of Defence are investing with BAE Systems to expand the Barrow shipyard in preparation for an exciting future. In addition to the Astute Class, construction is underway on the first three boats in the Dreadnought Class, which is the next generation of nuclear deterrent submarines that will replace the current Vanguard Class.”
The company added “BAE Systems is also developing the SSN-AUKUS programme, as part of the trilateral security pact between Australia, the UK and America. Under the AUKUS agreement, Australia and the UK will operate a common submarine of the future, incorporating technology from all three nations, based on the UK’s next generation design, which BAE Systems is leading.”
Royal Navy Ships Named After Ancient Greek Figures and Myths
Many Royal Navy ships throughout history have been named after figures and creatures from ancient Greek mythology.
Six ships of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Charybdis, after the sea monster of ancient Greek mythology. The first of these ships was commissioned in 1809; an 18-gun brig-sloop in use until 1819. She apparently became the Whaler Greenwich which made three complete voyages and then wrecked in the Seychelles in 1833 while on her fourth.
HMS Naiad – named after the female spirits, or nymphs of Greek mythology that presided over fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of fresh water – was a Leander-Class frigate of the Royal Navy. HMS Naiad was built by Yarrow Shipbuilders of Scotstoun, and was launched on November 4 1963 and commissioned on March 15 1965.
The Royal Navy also commissioned HMS Hercules, a 20,000-ton dreadnought battleship of the Colossus class, which was built by Palmers at the company’s dockyard at Hebburn in north-eastern England and launched in 1910. Among several other ships of the same name.
As well as the HMS Calliope – named after the muse of epic poetry in ancient Greek mythology.
The US Department of State on Human Rights says that there is a list of issues on the treatment of migrants, police, and the use of spyware in Greece. Credit: AgnosticPreachersKid / CC BY-SA 3.0 / Wikimedia Commons
There were “no significant changes” in the human rights situation in Greece over the past year, the US State Department said in its annual report which includes, however, a list of issues about the treatment of migrants, police, and the use of spyware.
The report says “significant human rights issues included credible reports of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment of prison detainees and of migrants and asylum seekers by law enforcement authorities; crimes involving violence targeting members of national, racial, or ethnic minority groups; and crimes involving violence or threats of violence targeting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or intersex persons.”
The Greek government consistently took steps to investigate, prosecute, and punish officials who committed human rights abuses whether in the security forces or elsewhere in the government, the report said.
“There were, however, complaints from nongovernmental organizations and international organizations regarding government failures to effectively investigate allegations of forced returns of asylum seekers and to hold those responsible to account,” it added.
For example, the State Department mentions reports of mistreatment and abuse by police and the Coast Guard, including against members of racial and ethnic minority groups, undocumented migrants, asylum seekers, demonstrators, and Roma.
Furthermore, prison and detention centers remained overcrowded, often with inadequate sanitation or health care, the report said.
Corruption and media in Greece according to the Human Rights report
On corruption, the State Department found that “the most notable cases” involved police. There were 32 convictions either at appeal or first instance levels (24 in 2021) and 15 acquittals (21 in 2021). Imprisonment was suspended in 28 of the 32 conviction cases.
Concerning media plurality, according to the report, domestic and international agencies said journalists and media outlets faced pressure to avoid criticizing the government or reporting scandals.
The report notes that the Council of Europe’s Commissioner for Human Rights, Dunja Mijatović, urged authorities to ensure “human rights defenders and journalists could work safely and freely.”
In May 2023, a report by Reporters Without Borders cited concerns about wiretapping of journalists, allegedly by the intelligence agencies and using the Predator spyware, concentration of media ownership, government control of public media, and violence against journalists, primarily those covering protests and migration.
Furthermore, media freedom watchdogs continued to raise concerns about the use of Greek liber and slander laws to intimidate journalists.
In her March report, the UN special rapporteur on human rights defenders noted journalists faced “criminal lawsuits and strategic lawsuits against public participation for their investigative reporting on corruption and environmental pollution.”
Gender-based violence in Greece
On gender-based violence, a November 14th EU Group of Experts on Action against Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence report revealed that “although Greece had made progress in combating violence against women, serious concerns remained, particularly regarding victim protection, implicit attitudes about gender-based violence among police, prosecutors, and judicial decision-making officials.”
There were also high rates of witness and victim attrition and low conviction rates, particularly in cases of rape.
Greece responds
Responding to the report, the Greek Foreign Ministry appeared to question the findings, stating that the State Department did not seek the view of the government.
“Particularly important for the integrity, reliability and objectivity of the report is the fact that the opinion of the Greek state was not sought about the mentioned issues,” the ministry said in a press release.
“The report lists, without further investigation, complaints by non-governmental organizations that are not independently verified. Precisely because of this indiscriminate recording, it appears that serious human rights issues exist in all countries with a developed rule of law,” it was added.
One of the cannons was discovered at the shipwreck in Halkidiki. Credit: AMNA
A shipwreck believed to be connected to the Greek War of Independence in 1821-1829 was discovered recently off the coast of Halkidiki, northern Greece.
In its wooden hull two cannons and a one-and-a-half-meter-long rifle, called kariofili, which Greek revolutionaries widely used, were also discovered.
The shipwreck is about 80 meters from the shore of the village of Furka and at a depth of four meters. The ship’s wooden hull is approximately 25 meters long and eight wide.
The ship’s wooden hull is estimated to be 25 meters long and eight wide. Credit: AMNA
Two cannons and a rifle are among findings of the shipwreck in Greece
Of great interest were the two cannons found in good condition, 1.65 and 1.86 meters long respectively, as well as the kariofili, which has decorative elements and exceeds one and a half meters in length.
The rifle discovered has decorative elements. Credit: AMNA
The shipwreck was discovered alongside portable materials, bricks, concrete blocks, car tires and even a television screen that local residents said ended up there during the floods of the past few decades.
A modern ladder was also found, which was used in a failed attempt to remove the cannons from the bottom of the sea.
Research on the shipwreck is carried out by archaeologists S. Vrachionidou and A. Tourta.
According to them, the research is at an early stage, but the wreck probably belongs to the revolutionary period and dates back to the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
Ship could have played a part in the revolution of 1821
Evidence for the identity of the ship is provided by the findings of the wreck, which include, among others, ropes and sails, clay and metal vessels, a copper pan, a glass bottle with its cork, fragments of porcelain cups, a wooden basket, a broken sack and a bronze inkpot.
The research and study of the material will continue, while underwater excavation will highlight the area and illuminate the role of the wrecked vessel in the not so well known revolution of 1821 in Macedonia.
It is possible that the ship played a role in the Greek Revolution, specifically the revolt in Halkidiki, spearheaded by Emmanuel Papas, who carried food to bolster the revolutionaries.
In 1821, the Greek War of Independence started and the Greeks of Halkidiki revolted under the command of Emmanouel Pappas, a member of Filiki Eteria, and other local fighters.
The revolt was progressing slowly and unsystematically. The insurrection was confined to the peninsulas of Mount Athos and Kassandra. One of the main goals was to restrain and detain the coming of the Ottoman army from Istanbul until the revolution in the south (mainly Peloponnese) became stable.
Finally, the revolt resulted in a decisive Ottoman victory at Kassandra. The survivors, among them Papas, were rescued by the Psarian fleet, which took them mainly to Skiathos, Skopelos and Skyros. The Ottomans proceeded in retaliation and many villages were burnt.
Plato’s statue in Athens. Credit: Edgar Serrano, CC2/Wikipedia
An Italian archaeologist says he has found the exact location of Plato’s grave in the Platonic Academy in Athens after deciphering the Herculaneum papyri.
The Herculaneum papyri are a collection of over 1,800 ancient scrolls discovered in the 18th century. They were unearthed in the Villa of the Papyri, a luxurious Roman estate located in Herculaneum, Italy.
These scrolls are unique because they were buried and preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The intense heat carbonized the papyri, turning them into fragile rolls. While this initially seemed like destruction, it actually protected the scrolls from the elements that normally would have caused them to rot away over time.
Using AI technology, scientists are now attempting to decipher the papyri.
The location of Plato’s burial place was contained in thousands of new words and differently read words in a papyrus on the history of the Academy by Philodemus of Gadara, an Epicurean philosopher and poet who lived in Herculaneum, said University of Pisa expert Graziano Ranocchia.
The scholar made the announcement at the Naples Biblioteca Nazionale (National Library) as he presented the mid-term results of the ‘Greek Schools’ research project conducted with the National Research Council.
Ranocchia said the texts suggested the burial place was in a garden reserved for Plato in a private area in the Academy, near the sacred shrine to the Muses.
The archaeological site of Plato’s academy. Credit: Tomisti , CC BY-SA 3.0/Wikipedia
Plato’s grave and the Platonic Academy in Athens
Plato’s Academy, or simply, ”The Academy,” was a famous school in ancient Athens founded by Plato in 387 BC, located on the northwestern outskirts of Athens, outside the city walls. The site acquired its name from the legendary hero Academos.
Plato is the one figure who must receive the credit for giving birth to this unique institution. He first acquired the land on which the Academy was eventually built and began holding informal gatherings there to discuss philosophical issues with some of his friends.
The gatherings included thinkers such as Theaetetus of Sunium, Archytas of Tarentum, Leodamas of Thasos, and Neoclides. These meetings and discussions continued for years but it was not until Eudoxus of Cnidos arrived in the mid-380s BC that Akademeia was recognized as a formal Academy.
The archaeological site of Plato’s academy. Credit: Tomisti , CC BY-SA 3.0/Wikipedia
Plato’s Academy was not an educational institution as we know it in modern times, but because it had the characteristics of a school and covered a wide variety of topics such as philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, politics, physics and more, it is considered to be the first university in the entire world.
”The School of Athens” – Fresco by Raphael, depicting the Platonic Academy in Athens. In the center we can see Plato and Aristotle, discussing. The fresco now decorates the rooms now known as the Stanze di Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican Credit: Public Domain
The garden which Plato decided to use for his discussions had also been used previously by many Athenian groups, both civil and religious, with the Akademeia hosting a nighttime torchlight race from altars in Athens to the altar of Prometheus in its gardens.
The road that led to the University was also lined with the gravestones of many Athenians, and funeral games took place there, along with a Dionysian procession from the city of Athens to the site and then back into the city.
The Platonic Academy was destroyed by the Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC.
An exclusive group of intellectuals met in Akademeia, with Plato’s “students” not truly bearing the title of a student apart from their distinction between junior and senior members of the body.
One of them, Aristotle, came to be one of the world’s most influential philosophers of all time.
