An amphora was brought to the surface from the shipwreck near the Greek island of Fournoi. Credit: Ministry of Culture
Excavations of an ancient Byzantine shipwreck off the coast of Fournoi near Samos, Greece are bringing new finds onto the surface.
The wreck has been systematically excavated since 2021 and has been selected for intensive investigation due to the extremely interesting cargo it carries.
The amphorae found in the sand near the wreck, along with the wooden skeleton of the ship itself, were in remarkably good condition. Experts believe that the ship’s wooden framing survived throughout the centuries because it was crushed under the rest of the ship and oxygen couldn’t reach it, stalling the process of decay.
So far eight different amphora types have been recorded, originating from Crimea, Sinope of the Pontus region in the Black Sea, as well as from the Aegean islands and the Phocaean region of Asia Minor.
Eight different amphora types have been recorded. Credit: Ministry of Culture
Pottery recovered at the ancient Byzantine shipwreck
The Ministry of Culture says 170 group dives were carried out during the latest excavations carried out in September 2023. Archaeologists worked throughout the period to clear sand and debris from the wreck to provide access for experts to conduct studies of the site.
The scattering of the finds on the seabed seems to indicate a partial loss of cargo before the ship sank.
The recovered pottery was particularly enlightening, in terms of the more precise chronological inclusion of the wreck, which can now be safely dated between 480 and 520 AD, probably during the years of Emperor Anastasios I (491 – 518 AD), says a press release by the Greek Ministry of Culture.
Byzantine Emperor Anastasios I is known for his fiscal and monetary reforms, which strengthened the Empire’s coffers and enabled the expansionist policy of the emperors of the 6th century.
The finds are scattered on the seabed near the shipwreck. Credit: Ministry of Culture
In parallel with the excavation of the wreck, findings from three more wrecks at the Fournoi archipelago were recovered, which are intended to be exhibited at the local archeological museum which is under construction. Among these finds are a giant archaic anchor obelisk and amphorae from shipwrecks of the 6th to 8th centuries A.D.
Countless ancient shipwrecks off Greece
There are many ancient shipwrecks across the Greek seas, and archaeologists have found countless historic treasures in these sunken archaeological sites.
Earlier in March, the Ministry of Culture announced that scientists have discovered several shipwrecks and other important ancient finds in the underwater, near Greece’s island of Kasos.
These date back indicatively from prehistory (3000 BC), the Classical period (460 BC), the Hellenistic (100 BC to 100 AD), and the Roman years (200 BC – 300 AD) to the medieval and Ottoman periods.
“We have responded to this great challenge by opening to the public a total of four underwater archaeological sites in the prefecture of Magnesia, which will allow Greece to join the world map of diving tourism.”
The skull of the athlete is still adorned by the golden wreath. Credit: Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos, Crete
The skull of a crowned athlete with a gold wreath in the shape of a laurel branch still attached to it is perhaps one of the most impressive exhibits in Greece.
The flesh disintegrated after 2,500 years, but the wreath stuck and remained on the skull. Inside the mouth, a silver coin was found as a token to Charon, who in Greek mythology was the ferryman of Hades who carried the souls of the newly deceased to the underworld.
The skull was found in the cemetery of the ancient city of Lato and was one of the most spectacular exhibits at Agios Nikolaos museum in Crete.
Skull with gold wreath discovered in the ruins of the ancient city of Lato
Lato was an ancient city of Crete, the ruins of which are located approximately 3 km from the village of Kritsa, among the oldest and most picturesque villages in Crete which was built amphitheatrically on a rock hill called Kastellos. This hill is surrounded by olive groves at an altitude of 375m.
The Dorian city-state was built in a defensible position overlooking Mirabello Bay between two peaks, both of which became acropolises to the city.
Although the city probably predates the arrival of the Dorians, the ruins date mainly from the Dorian period (5th and 4th centuries BCE). The city was destroyed c. 200 BCE, but its port (Lato Etera, or Lato pros Kamara), located near Agios Nikolaos was in use during Roman rule.
This has led to the confusion, repeated by Stephanus of Byzantium quoting Xenion, a Cretan historian, that Kamara and Lato were one and the same. Modern scholarship distinguishes the two.
The city was most likely named after the goddess Leto (of which Lato is the usual Doric form) and may be mentioned in Linear B tablets as RA-TO. Lato also minted coins in antiquity, bearing the likeness of the goddess Eileithyia, who appears to have been the one particularly worshipped at Lato.
Skull exhibited at the Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos
The Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos opened in 1969 and was considered one of the most significant in Crete. It has a rich collection of archaeological treasures ranging from the pre-Minoan (3000 BC) to the Roman (2nd century AD) period.
The museum housed collections of vital archaeological findings from the entire region of eastern Crete, extending from Malia to the distant Zakros. Its showcases included more than 1,500 pots, as well as the oldest gold and bronze findings in Crete.
Among the exhibits of the museum were the findings from the seaside cemetery of Agia Fotia, the largest Minoan cemetery that has been excavated, the terracotta figurine of the Goddess of Myrtos, the golden pin, the stone pyxidio, and the stone Rhyton in shape of a triton shell.
Unfortunately, the museum is currently closed. All exhibits have been moved to other museums in Crete.
The village of Chrysomilia in Central Greece is renowned for families with many children. Credit: Facebook/Freinds of Chrysomilia
A village in Central Greece defies the demographic crisis in the country by boasting extended families with many children.
In the small mountain village of Chrysomilia near Kalambaka in Thessaly, dozens of children can be seen playing, going to school and church, and living within extended families.
The village is a community of about 500 inhabitants, perched at an altitude of 900 meters, and is referred to as the “village of many children.” At least 80 families have more than three children, according to a report on Skai TV.
The village, thanks to its location and inhabitants, was a vibrant and self-sufficient village that relied on many different sources of income: livestock, agriculture, and timber.
The president of the local council, Nikos Stephopoulos, explained the historical reason that the village defies the Greek demographic trend.
According to the local priest, “The legend says that in 1800 the village had suffered subsidence. Families had been killed. The stories say that half the village was lost. Then the inhabitants decided to regenerate it by having many children.”
The priest adds that perhaps there is nowhere else in Greece where up to thirty grade school children attend liturgies. Kids also help their parents in agricultural work.
Greece’s demographic crisis
Greece is facing a demographic crisis with the country experiencing the lowest population reproduction rate in Europe. The situation has reached alarming proportions with more deaths occurring than births.
In 2010, Greece recorded 114,766 births compared to 109,084 deaths. However, over the course of a decade, the numbers have shifted dramatically. In 2020, Greece reported only 84,717 births but a staggering 131,084 deaths. This trend has led to a significant population decline.
The reproduction rate in Greece is now one of the lowest in the world, standing at 1.3 children per woman. This is well below the stability limit of 2.1 children per woman.
This specific demographic problem has been observed for many decades in Greece. Faye Makandasis, diaNEOSis’ research director, noted declining fertility indicators since 1940 stemming from past generations.
He expressed concern, saying that if current conditions and factors remain unchanged, “We will talk about a reduction of the population in Greece by half.”
Among the factors contributing to the decline in fertility and Greece’s demographic crisis, Makandasis identified the delay of childbearing. He stated that Greek women give birth to their first child at an average age of 30.3 years.
Earlier this year, Greece announced a package of measures for new parents aimed at helping families cope with the rising cost of living and tackling the demographic problem facing the country.
Among the measures was an increase in the birth allowance from 400 to 1,500 euros. This increase will have a retroactive effect, as it will also apply to births from 2023.
Dionysios Solomos, the creator of The Hymn to Liberty, Greece’s National Anthem. Credit: Public domain.
Dionysios Solomos, born on the island of Zakynthos in 1798, is rightly regarded as the National Poet of Greece for writing “Imnos eis tin Eleftherían,” (“Hymn to Liberty”), the first two stanzas of which became the national anthem of Greece.
His work had a monumental influence in uniting Greeks and creating a common national identity following the 1821 War of Independence and the establishment of a free state.
Dionysios Solomos, the creator of the Hymn to Liberty
The Hymn to Liberty, which was written in 1823, consists of 158 stanzas, and combines elements of romanticism and classicism. It is made up of tetrastic stanzas, in which octosyllabic and heptasyllabic verses alternate.
The Corfiot musician Nicolaos Mantzaros composed a melody for the words in 1828. Based on popular rhythms, it was originally written as a four-part harmony choral work. After that the anthem was regularly played on national holidays and in the houses of Corfu merchants, coming to be considered the unofficial hymn of the Heptanese.
Mantzaros modified his original melody several times – the second in 1837, the third between 1839 and 1840, and the fourth in December 1844 – before he presented it to King Otto I.
In 1865, the first three stanzas (and later the first two) officially became the national anthem of Greece; in 1966, this was also adopted as the national anthem of the Republic of Cyprus.
The first publishing of “Hymn to Liberty”, the Greek National Anthem. Public Domain.
Solomos wrote the hymn to honor the courageous struggle of the Greeks for independence after centuries of Ottoman rule.
The poem recounts the misery of the Greeks under the Ottomans and their desperate hope for freedom. He describes several events of the War, including the execution of Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople, the reaction of the Great Powers, the Siege of Tripolitsa and the Christian character of the struggle.
The Greek National Anthem
Σε γνωρίζω από την κόψη
Του σπαθιού την τρομερή,
Σε γνωρίζω από την όψη
Που με βιά μετράει τη γη.
Απ’ τα κόκκαλα βγαλμένη
Των Ελλήνων τα ιερά
Και σαν πρώτα ανδρειωμένη
Χαίρε, ω χαίρε Ελευθεριά!
Και σαν πρώτα ανδρειωμένη
Χαίρε, ω χαίρε Ελευθεριά!
Και σαν πρώτα ανδρειωμένη
Χαίρε, ω χαίρε Ελευθεριά!
English translation:
I know you by the dreadful
edge of the sword,
I know you by the gaze
that measures the land with force.
Born from the sacred
bones of the Greeks
and brave as in the old times
Hail, oh hail, Liberty!
And brave as in the old times
Hail, oh hail, Liberty!
And brave as in the old times
Hail, oh hail, Liberty!
The Greek poet of liberty
Solomos, who was the central figure of the Heptanese School of poetry, is considered to be the national poet of Greece — not only because he wrote the national anthem, but also because he contributed to the preservation of an earlier poetic tradition and highlighted its usefulness to modern literature.
After completing The Hymn to Liberty, Solomos continued to write impressive poetry, but never fully completed another work, and very few of his works were published in his lifetime. He had moved to Corfu and also established a literary circle there.
Solomos suffered a series of strokes toward the end of his life and passed away on February 9, 1857. His remains were returned to his native island of Zakynthos in 1865.
Greece has climbed 28 spots to the top of a list of 10 countries making the fastest progress in improving business environment, according to an Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) report released on Wednesday.
Plowing ahead of Argentina and India, which hold second and third place respectively, “Greece has witnessed the most significant improvement, showing the country’s pro-business government, which has implemented reforms, cut taxes and initiatives to enhance business confidence,” the report said.
EIU’s business environment index measures the attractiveness of the business environment in 82 countries and territories, examining 91 indicators spread across 11 different categories.
The findings, based on a vector autoregression (VAR) model which measured two decades’ worth of data in 82 countries and territories, predict which are “on the verge of notable economic growth,” and, therefore, “favorable destinations to direct future investment spending.”
The VAR model used by the EIU “suggests that these improvements may result in an uptick in real GDP per capita growth, investment spending and foreign direct investment,” it was said.
The latest rankings by the EIU also reveal that Singapore, Denmark, and the US are projected to have the best business environments over the next five years, with Singapore expected to maintain its position at the top for the sixteenth consecutive year.
Several West European economies, alongside Canada, Hong Kong, and New Zealand, make up the remaining top ten best places in the world to conduct business.
In December 2023, TheEconomist magazine ranked Greece’s economic performance for 2023 in the top spot in the list of 35 countries around the globe.
According to the analysis based on five economic and financial indicators (inflation, “inflation breadth”, GDP, jobs and stock market performance), Greece has the best economic marks among 35 mainly rich countries this year.
Greece is above South Korea and the United States in the relevant table.
Greece’s business environment is boosted by investment-grade status
Greece approved its 2024 budget in December, forecasting a rise in economic growth to 2.9 percent from 2.4 percent this year as a result of robust tourist revenues and EU funds helping investment.
Greece regained its investment-grade status in 2023 after thirteen years. Fitch Ratings upgraded Greece’s Long-Term Foreign-Currency Issuer Default Rating (IDR) to BBB- from BB+.
Characterized by Greek finance experts as the strictest and most robust rating agency, Fitch rewards the Greek economy’s efforts by giving the country a vote of confidence.
Fitch was the second of the big three US rating agencies after S&P to give Greece a higher investment grade. This will allow more institutional investors to buy Greek bonds, thus increasing capital inflows and further helping to contain borrowing costs for the Greek government and businesses.
Maria Karystianou has kept the tragic accident of Tempe in the limelight. Credit: Facebook/ Maria Karystianou
If it were not for Maria Karystianou the railway tragedy at Tempe in 2023 that claimed the lives of 53 people would perhaps been forgotten.
Karystianou, dubbed the “mother of Tempe”, has been fighting for the last 12 months in Greece and abroad to seek justice for the victims and punishment for those responsible irrespective of their place in politics.
The Thessaloniki-born pediatrician who represents the families of the 57 victims of the train accident in Tempe lost her 20-year-old daughter Marti Psaropoulou at the train crash.
In emotional speeches at the Greek Parliament, the European Parliament and other national and international fora she almost single-handedly forced the conservative government of Kyriakos Mitsotakis into a defensive mode.
In social media networks, her name leads the trends. Her speeches are not just moving; they are thought-provoking and make you think. People see in her a person who manages to control her pain of losing her child and fights for a right to know that is not hers alone.
Maria Karystianou leads call for the lifting of immunity after Tempe
Almost one and a half million Greek citizens signed a resolution calling for the lifting of parliamentary immunity for the political figures involved in the case.
Questions she has been raising about a possible cover-up after the tragic accident and the parliamentary immunity of former ministers have kept the issue open: Who was responsible and why they are not punished?
Speaking at the European Parliament earlier in the week she said that the Greek government “initiated a sequence of bad manipulations and methods, which insults the memory of our dead and the dignity of the victims who survived.”
Karystianou noted the government through the Parliament provides the competent minister at the time and current MP Kostas Karamanlis full immunity.
“It doesn’t even refer him to face justice,” she said.
“In the first 24 hours after the fatal collision, a government cover-up was ordered for which to this day no one has taken responsibility, even though it has been publicly acknowledged,” she said.
“During the collision, flammable and illegal substances caused a huge explosion that incinerated most of them. This cargo was not even declared. Within 5 days they moved the debris and filled the area. Crucial evidence of guilt was lost,” she added.
Party politics
Some have been trying to use her for petty political purposes. Social media users wonder whether she is on the left of the political spectrum and wants to topple the conservative government with her elaborate interventions.
“No opposition party has asked me or even hinted that I may join them [in the run-up to the European elections]. I only hear these rumors from supporters of the ruling party,” she said.
Κόλαφος για τη ΝΔ η απάντηση της κας.Καρυστιανού στη χυδαία ερώτηση της Κοραή.
«Δεν έχω δεχθεί κ δεν έχει υπονοήσει ποτέ κάνεις από τα κόμματα της αντιπολίτευσης, πρόταση για πολιτική συστράτευση. Το ακούω μόνο από υποστηρικτές του κυβερνώντος κόμματος»pic.twitter.com/I6a2ALIDG1
Most agree that Karystianou doesn’t belong to anyone. It belongs to herself, who is going through the hell of a terrible loss. She was driven to the center stage by pain and tragedy, but also by the insecurity she feels towards the institutions, like most Greek citizens.
Greece personified as a woman in the painting “Grateful Hellas” by Theodoros Vryzakis, 1858. Credit: Public Domain
The role that Greek women played in the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire is not to be overlooked, as these heroines helped shape the course of Greece’s fight for freedom.
Several women stand out as having influenced the Greek War of Independence, while others– who are nameless — will always be remembered in the hearts and stories of the Greek people for their bravery and as revered martyrs.
Let’s take a look at some of the most memorable among these women:
Laskarina Bouboulina: renowned heroine of the Greek War of Independence
Laskarina Bouboulina. Credit: Public Domain
One of the most renowned heroines of the Greek War of Independence, Bouboulina was a patriot to her last breath.
She was born in May of 1771 in a prison in Constantinople and led a most unconventional life for her times.
Laskarina was married twice and inherited a fortune due to her marriages. There are reports that in 1819 Bouboulina joined the “Filiki Etaireia” (Society of Friends), the underground organization preparing to facilitate a revolution against Ottoman rule to liberate Greece.
Bouboulina went on to become a Greek naval commander in the Greek War of Independence. On March 13, 1821 she raised the Greek flag, which was based on the flag of the Comnenus dynasty of Byzantine emperors, on the mast of her ship, and led her fleet of eight ships to Nafplio, where she started a naval blockade.
Her wealth and fortune were a great asset, and she spent most of her riches on supplying ammunition and food for the sailors and soldiers under her command. She would go on to participate in other naval blockades and the capture of Monemvasia and Pylos. In 1825, however, she was killed by an unknown assassin on the balcony of her house on Spetses during a family feud.
Manto Mavrogenous, a fighter for the cause of Greek freedom
Portrait of Mavrogenous by Adam Friedel. Credit: Public Domain
Born in 1796 in Trieste, Italy, which was at the time part of the Austrian Empire, Mavrogenous moved to Paros with her family in 1809 and joined the Filiki Etaireia in 1820 when she learned from her father, who was already a member of the organization, that they were preparing a revolution.
She was wealthy and well-educated, and convinced her friends to donate their money in efforts to increase the weaponry for the Greeks fighting in the revolution, appealingto wealthy women as far away as Paris to side with the Greeks.
Mavrogenous first went to Mykonos to invite leaders to join in the revolution.
Soon afterward, she left her family in 1823 and moved to Nafplio to fight at the center of the conflict. She stayed in Nafplion after the war concluded, and was granted the rank of Lieutenant General by Kapodistrias. After Kapodistrias’ assassination, Mavrogenous returned to Mykonos and lost her life to typhoid fever in July of 1848.
Rallou Karatza was a princess, actress, and revolutionary
Born a princess in 1799, Karatza became an actress, theater director and translator. She was a participant in the Greek War of Independence, as it is rumored that she too became a member of the Filiki Etaireia, using her influence as a stage actress to help the revolution.
Karatza translated and performed plays from Western Europe in the “Cişmeaua Roşie” in Bucharest, where she became a valuable weapon of propaganda for the revolution. Reports say that she died in 1870.
“Greece on the Ruins of Messolonghi,” Eugene Delcroix, 1826. Credit: Public Domain
The “Mesolongitisses,” heroines who defended Greece in the War of Independence
The women of Messolonghi, or “Mesolongitisses” are remembered as the brave heroines who, during the Greek War of Independence, helped in the efforts to liberate Greece from the Turks in many ways.
They not only defended western Greece throughout the long siege of the area, they also helped the soldiers by transporting materials to build forts, such as wood and tools, and helped the wounded to recover. During the exodus, many of the women of Missolonghi perished alongside the soldiers, as they were massacred, captured or committed suicide to escape torture or enslavement at the hands of their enemy.
Monument to the women at Zalongo. Credit: Ha Te/ Wikimedia Commons/ CC BY-SA 4.0
The “Souliotisses” chose death over capture
The women of Souli, called “Souliotisses” are known for their bravery in fighting as well as for being martyrs. They took part in the military operations of northern Greece and even threw boulders from high cliffs onto the Turks below during battles.
In December of 1803, at the “Dance of Zalongo” these women threw themselves off the high cliffs where they once had thrown rocks.They chose to commit suicide rather than be captured by the Turks.
George Karlaftis, who just won his second Super Bowl with the Kansas City Chiefs, will be the Grand Master of the New York Parade to honor Greek independence, organizers announced on Thursday.
The 2024 Greek Independence Parade Weekend will consist of the Flag Raising at Bowling Green on Friday, April 12th, the Gala on April 13th, and the Parade on Fifth Avenue in New York City on April 14th.
Karlaftis and the New York Greek parade
Thousands of Greek-Americans and others are expected to descend onto Manhattan’s Fifth Avenue to watch the traditional parade and participate in the festivities to mark the anniversary of the Greek revolution against the Ottoman Turks.
The annual event, a celebration of Hellenic identity, culture, and achievements in the world, is organized and hosted by the Federation of Hellenic Societies of Greater New York, a non-profit organization committed to fostering an appreciation of Greek-American heritage and achievement.
Last year, George M. Logothetis, Executive Chairman of Libra Group, was the Grand Marshal of the parade, and he walked along Archibishop Elpidophoros, Greek Ambassador to the US Alexandra Papadopoulou, and other dignitaries.
“As a proud Greek-American, it is an honor to be named a Grand Marshal for New York’s Greek Independence Day Parade,” said Logothetis.
Karlaftis’ rise to the top
Karlaftis, a proud Greek American, was instrumental in the Chiefs’ win against the San Francisco 49ers with a score of 25-22 in February. Karlaftis’ impact was felt immediately, recovering a Christian McCaffrey fumble to end San Francisco’s first drive.
Chiefs force the fumble and firmly grasp the recovery 👀
He is 6’4″ and weighs 263 pounds. He is indeed huge compared to most humans, but perhaps his abnormality in American football is that he may be a bit undersized. Some questioned if he could compete against the many top players of the NFL. It turns out observers find him relentless.
George Karlaftis’ father, Matt, a javelin thrower, was a star in track and field at the University of Miami. His father, while attending graduate school, met his mother Amy at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. Purdue has an unsung relationship with Greece and Greek-Americans.
George’s parents returned to Athens, where his father became a professor. The family had four children. Everything changed, however, when their father died of a heart attack while traveling for work at age forty-four. Within days, their mother, Amy, moved the children back to Indiana, where she had more support.
It was in Indiana that George, who played many sports in Greece, fell in love with American football.
Credit: Players of the Greek National team celebrate one of the five goals against Kazakhstan on Thursday night. Credit: AMNA
Greece thrashed Kazakhstan 5-0 in their Euro 2024 play-off semi-final on Thursday and has one final hurdle to clear on its way to the finals.
If Greece beats Georgia in Tbilisi on Tuesday it will qualify to the finals of a major international competition after a 12-year wait.
A truly imposing performance by the players of coach Gus Poyet at the OPAP Arena on Thursday night led to an unexpectedly comfortable victory in the division’s semifinal.
The Greeks opened the score in the first five minutes, as Dimitris Pelkas earned a penalty that captain Tasos Bakasetas converted into the first goal.
The second came just eight minutes later, this time with Pelkas translating into a goal the delightful cross from the right by Giorgos Massouras.
Massouras was also the provider for the third goal that Fotis Ioannidis scored on the 37th, three minutes before Dimitris Kourbelis headed home another cross from the right, this time by Kostas Tsimikas, for 4-0 at half-time.
The Greeks dropped a gear in the second half, as victory was already assured, but a fifth goal arrived five minutes from the end by the Kazakhs themselves: Yerkin Tapalov scored an own goal from a corner kick Greece took, once again, from the right.
Repeat performance on Tuesday could see Greece in Euro 2024
Overall it was an impressive performance by the Greek National team. A repeat performance on Tuesday will surely guarantee a place in Euro 2024, a competition it won so unexpectedly in 2004.
Euro 2024 is taking place next summer, with 23 teams joining the hosts in the finals. Germany will host the tournament, which is scheduled to take place from 14 June to 14 July 2024.
It will be the third time that European Championship matches are played on German territory and the second time in reunified Germany, as the former West Germany hosted the tournament’s 1988 edition.
Greece has transformed itself under the guidance of Gus Poyet since February 2022. He guided the team to four victories from their four opening fixtures in League C of the 2022 UEFA Nations League, helping Greece earn promotion to League B for the following campaign. Now he is set to lead the team to the finals of Euro 2024.
It has been a great few weeks for Greek soccer as soccer giants Olympiacos and PAOK triumphed advancing to the last 8 of Europa Conference League and dreaming of a place in the final of the UEFA competition that will be held in Athens.
PAOK and Olympiacos are also contenders for the title in Greece’s Super League, along with AEK Athens and Panathinaikos.
The War of the Heavenly Horses set the stage for an epic confrontation between the ancient Greeks of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the mighty Han Dynasty of China. Credit: DALLE for the Greek Reporter
Greece and China have been two of the world’s most unique civilizations, but how many of us knew that the two nations have actually been at war against each other?
The story is more complicated than one might think. Buried beneath heroic stories of Alexander’s conquests and the vast expanse of the Macedonian Empire, we can see a lesser-known conflict. This conflict is known as “The War of the Heavenly Horses.”
This skirmish, far from the Mediterranean’s sunny shores, set the stage for an epic confrontation between the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the mighty Han Dynasty of China between 104 and 102 BC.
The prize? A breed of horses so esteemed they were deemed heavenly.
What led to the War of ancient Greeks and China
Emerging from the fragments of Alexander the Great‘s vast empire, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was a cultural melting pot. It flourished in the region now known as Afghanistan and Tajikistan, among others.
Its newly established cities were beacons of Hellenistic culture, blending Greek art, philosophy, and governance with the rich traditions of the local populations of Central Asia. This unique kingdom was at the crossroads of the ancient world. It extended its influence through trade as well as military expeditions and cultural exchange. This brief but crucial presence of the Greek element in Central Asia left an indelible mark on the history of the broader area.
Meanwhile, in the East, the Han Dynasty of China had already risen with ambitions that stretched beyond the vast landscapes of mainland China.
Under the rule of Emperor Wu, the Han wanted desperately to expand their borders, bolster their military, and secure their own position as a dominant force in Asia.
Central to these ambitions was the acquisition of the legendary Ferghana horses. These horses were known for their speed and strength. They would potentially become the reason for turning the tide in the ongoing conflict that the Dynasty had with the nomadic group of Xiongnu. Thus, the Han Dynasty went to the very edge of their borders, reaching the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and setting the stage for a monumental clash in the name of the Heavenly Horses.
This conflict unfolds a tale of royal ambition, thoughtful diplomacy, and warfare over the extraordinary Ferghana horses.
A map of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Credit: Martinez-Seve-Laurianne, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0
Prelude to war
The stage for this conflict was set when Emperor Wu showed his sheer determination to increase the size of his cavalry with the mythical Ferghana horses. These creatures, famed for their speed and strength, were said to sweat blood instead of water, and their valor in battle was believed to be unmatched.
The emperor’s envoy, a man called Zhang Qian, brought tales of these majestic beasts back from the Ferghana Valley. Qian was sent on a ten-year expedition to the West in order to find all he could get to support his Dynasty’s power. These tales started to ignite a desire that would ultimately lead to war.
However, when diplomatic missions to secure these horses ended in violence—with the envoys ambushed and the gold meant for trade confiscated by the Greeks—the stage was set. A military confrontation was inevitable.
The Ferghana Valley was surrounded by the Tien Shan and Pamir mountains. It was, however, more than just a geographical location. It was the melting point between the sedentary civilizations of the East and the nomadic cultures of the West.
Its horses became the ultimate prize that would see the Han Dynasty and the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, two powers separated by vast distances and different cultures, drawn into a conflict that would be remembered as the War of the Heavenly Horses.
This was an event that not only showed how the Ferghana horses were important to the Chinese but also underscored the lengths to which empires would go to secure an advantage over their enemies.
The clash was fueled by a blend of strategic ambitions and became the only time that the ancient Greeks and Chinese would engage in a deadly fight.
Eastern Han ingot imprints with Greek letters, excavated in Shaanxi, China. 1st-2nd century CE. credit: u/SXZ728/ Reddit
The stages of the War of the Heavenly Horses
The war was marked by its logistical nightmares and fierce resistance on the part of the Greeks. General Li Guangl, the leader of the Chinese forces, attacked in 104 BC but had been underestimating the resilience of the Greco-Bactrian defenders. He also didn’t think much about the harsh terrain and faced a humiliating retreat after his very first attack.
Yet, the spirit of the Han was not going to fade that easily. A second, larger expedition was meticulously organized soon after. This time, he used a formidable force of infantry, along with his cavalry and a caravan of supply animals. This showed the Greeks of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom the determination and strategic thinking of the Han Dynasty.
This second assault was a masterpiece of military planning and great execution. The Han forces laid siege to the Dayuan capital. This was the name the Chinese used for Alexandria Eschate (Alexandria the Furthest), the Greek capital of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.
Through a combination of tactics of relentless siege and strategic innovation, including diversion of the city’s water supply, the Han secured an unequivocal victory. The capture of the desired “heavenly horses” and the establishment of a puppet state in the lands of the defeated Greeks marked not just a military triumph but a significant expansion of Han influence to the West.
Aftermath and legacy of the war
The aftermath of the war was felt far beyond the battlefield. It shaped the destinies of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Han Dynasty alike. For the Greco-Bactrians, the conflict signified the beginning of the end. Their kingdom, already weakened by internal rivalries and external pressures, gradually succumbed to the surging tide of nomadic invasions.
This marked the waning of Hellenistic influence in Central Asia. The region would gradually but steadily transition into a new era of political and cultural realities away from their Greek phase.
On the other hand, for the Han Dynasty, the victory in the War of the Heavenly Horses was a monumental achievement. Not only did it secure the prized Ferghana horses, which enhanced the empire’s military capabilities, but it also established their dominion over the Western regions.
This victory paved the way for the flourishing of the well-known Silk Road, fostering an era of unprecedented economic and cultural exchanges between East and West. The war’s legacy managed to go beyond that geographical area and facilitate the establishment of a new world of trade, ideas, and cultural exchange.
Although simply a forgotten footnote in world history, this Greco-Chinese war clearly portrays the difficulties of the relations between powerful civilizations of antiquity. It also highlights the lengths to which empires can go to secure even a single strategic advantage—in this case, the acquisition of horses believed to be divine.
