Russia VS. NATO: Military Balance in Europe

Alexander Gale
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Russia VS. NATO: Military Balance in Europe
military tanks
A military confrontation in Europe between NATO and Russia has become one of the most pressing geopolitical considerations since the war in Ukraine broke out. credit: Kārlis Dambrāns / flickr CC BY 2.0 DEED

The war in Ukraine has brought the military balance in Europe between Russia and NATO back to the forefront of geostrategic thinking.

After the end of the Cold War and the demise of the USSR, Eastern Europe’s geostrategic importance as a potential flashpoint for conflict declined considerably. However, Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 and subsequent invasion of Ukraine in 2022 has again catapulted the security situation on NATO’s eastern flank to the top of the alliance’s list of priorities.

Although open warfare between NATO and Russia has thus far been avoided, the potential for such a conflict to ignite is no longer unthinkable. Consequently, determining the conventional military strengths of both sides has again become a crucial preoccupation for military analysts, as it once did during the Cold War.

Is a military clash between NATO and Russia over Europe imminent?

Geopolitical and military forecasting is a difficult business. Even the experts frequently get it wrong. The CIA, for example, wrongly predicted that Russian forces would quickly steamroll through Ukraine. It has been over two years since the initial invasion in February 2022, and Russia’s “special military operation” has thus far failed to produce the victory  President Vladimir Putin expected.

Although there is a heightened risk for a military clash to occur between Russia and NATO, it is clear that neither side wants to duke it out over Europe in a conventional—or nuclear— battle.

The financial and military contributions made to Ukraine by NATO members have been issued cautiously to avoid escalating tensions with Russia to the point of open warfare. Ultimately, NATO allies have been willing to expend their finances and munitions stockpiles in support of Ukraine but not the lives of their soldiers.

For Russia’s part, it is hard to imagine that the Kremlin envisages success in fighting in a wider European theater after suffering such serious setbacks in Ukraine alone. Putin’s veiled threats to use nuclear weapons may seem escalatory, but they are intended to deter further NATO intervention rather than to invite a broader conflict.

NATO meeting
General view of the meeting of the Foreign Ministry of Estonia at NATO on November 28, 2023. Estonian Foreign Ministry / CC BY 2.0 / Wikimedia Commons

World War III?

“If the iron dice must roll, may God help us,” remarked the German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg on the eve of the First World War. Neither Russia nor NATO wants to roll the iron dice. Even if the Kremlin aspires to absorb swathes of Eastern Europe into the Russian sphere of influence, this aim would be more realistically served by a strategy of hybrid warfare, which would seek to degrade NATO’s ability to resist below the threshold of open war.

With that being said, both sides have alluded to the possibility of a Third World War. Putin commented recently that the world is only “one step away from a full-scale third world war,” and Western officials have repeatedly warned that Russia will push further West into Europe if Ukraine is defeated.

This scenario would most likely transpire due to miscalculation more than anything else. For separate reasons, NATO and Russia have endeavored to keep this proxy war contained to Ukraine. However, a broadening of the conflict to the wider European continent might unfold as a series of unintended consequences.

The areas of most concern are the Baltics, the Black Sea, and Kaliningrad. The Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania are the NATO members most vulnerable to any kind of Russian incursion. The Black Sea is the sole site of maritime conflict between Ukraine and Russia, but it is also bordered by several neighboring countries and is a hub for seaborne trade. Kaliningrad is essentially a Russian military exclave sandwiched between Poland and Lithuania.

A myriad of events, particularly at these crucial points, could spark a wider conflict. A stray missile landing in the Baltics, the sinking of a civilian ship in the Black Sea, or an embargo against Kaliningrad might all be enough to upend the fragile status quo.

With those not-so-cheerful thoughts in mind, let us turn our attention toward the military balance between Russia and NATO and the factors that might decide the outcome of a war in Europe.

Bakhmut, Ukraine War
A Wagner private military contractor in Bakhmut. Credit: CC BY 4.0 / Wikimedia Commons

Military spending

“Money is the artery of war,” the Russian Tsar Peter the Great once remarked. He was not wrong. War is an expensive endeavor, and the side that is able to spend the most money on its military can afford to buy and produce better weapons and equipment, the advantages of which are obvious.

Unsurprisingly, Russia has been increasing its defense expenditure to meet the demands of the war in Ukraine. Late last year, Putin approved large increases to defense spending with approximately thirty percent of fiscal expenditure now directed toward the military.

Russia has the third-biggest defense budget in the world. Last year, it amounted to roughly $108.5 billion. However, the combined defense budgets of NATO members are larger. The alliance benefits tremendously from US leadership with the United States spending $905.5 billion on defense last year, making it the world’s largest military spender.

Non-US NATO members spend considerably less. However, this is still a considerable amount. This year, European NATO allies are projected to spend a combined sum of $380 billion on defense.

NATO members are encouraged to spend two percent or more of their gross domestic product (GDP) on defense. Few have reached this target, a fact that greatly rankled former US President Donald Trump. However, eighteen NATO members are expected to hit the target this year. European NATO allies closest to Russia tend to spend the most on defense.

NATO defense spending
Map showing which European NATO allies meet the two percent minimum defense spending target. Credit: SDAFA / MapChart

Land, air, and sea

The traditional domains of warfare are land, air, and sea. This is where battles are physically fought between soldiers, tanks, aircraft, maritime vessels, and so on. By comparing the capabilities of Russia and NATO in these domains, we can formulate a clearer picture of military balance in Europe.

Quantitatively, NATO holds the advantage in the air and at sea. NATO and Russian land capabilities are closer in number at least in terms of the number of vehicles and artillery. As for the overall size of the militaries, the regular strength of the Russian armed forces is estimated to be about 1,320,000, whereas the total number of combined NATO forces is roughly 3,500,000.

Russia is purported to have 12,566 main battle tanks (MBTs) to NATO’s 12,408. Russia’s MBT is the T-90, whereas NATO militaries field a variety of models, the most notable being the American M1 Abrams, the British Challenger 2, and the German Leopard 2.

Russian military doctrine has long stressed the importance of artillery. The Russian military has about 6,575 self-propelled artillery pieces and 3,887 self-propelled rocket launchers. NATO has fewer with 4,532 artillery pieces and 3,272 rocket launchers.

Combined, NATO allies have more aircraft at their disposal with a total number of aircraft at 20,633 of which about 3,398 are fighter/interceptor planes. Russia can reportedly field 4,182 aircraft of which 773 are fighters/interceptors. The most advanced Russian jet is the SU-57, whereas, for NATO, it is the F-35 Lighting II.

At sea, NATO again has a quantitative advantage. The total number of Russian military maritime vessels is around 598, whereas NATO allies have a combined number of 2,151. Crucially, Russia only has one aircraft carrier, whereas the US has 11, the UK and Italy have two, and France has one, bringing the NATO total up to 16.

F-35
F-35 Lighting II. Credit: I’ll Never Grow Up / CC BY 2.0 / Wikimedia Commons

Nuclear weapons

The prospect of a nuclear war between Russia and NATO is an unsettling notion. Many military and defense experts concluded during the Cold War that a nuclear war was unlikely due to the mutually assured destruction (MAD) doctrine resulting in the annihilation of both sides in a nuclear exchange.

Nevertheless, Putin has used Russia’s nuclear arsenal as a posturing device to deter the West from deepening its involvement in Ukraine.

Russia’s nuclear arsenal is the largest in the world. Russia has 5,977 nuclear warheads. Three NATO members have nuclear weapons: the US, the UK, and France. The US has the most at 5,428, followed by France with 290, and the UK with 225.

There are two categories of nuclear weapons—strategic and tactical. Strategic nuclear weapons are capable of hitting targets at longer ranges and would likely be aimed at densely populated urban areas such as capital cities. Tactical nuclear weapons have shorter ranges and are generally expected to be used against military targets to shape the outcome of battles.

A strategic nuclear exchange would not likely occur in anything other than a case of extreme desperation, given the potential for MAD. The use of tactical nuclear weapons, however, is more feasible in the case of a massive conventional land war between NATO and Russia on European soil.

As noted by William Alberque of the International Institute of Strategic Studies, Russia views tactical nuclear weapons as providing a “comparative and asymmetric advantage over its immediate neighbors and the US and its allies.”

Moscow Victory Day parade
Moscow Victory Day parade. Credit: Michał Siergiejevicz / CC BY 2.0 / Wikimedia Commons

Numbers don’t tell the whole story…

Tallying up the numbers of various military capabilities provides a clearer picture of the means available to either side in a potential conflict. However, quantity alone does not decide the outcome of war. If that were the case, armies would be led by mathematicians rather than generals.

The war in Ukraine is a pertinent example of this. Russia enjoys a considerable quantitative advantage over Ukraine, but its military has thus far failed to achieve decisive results on the battlefield. Wars are as much about leadership, geography, weather conditions, innovation, troop quality, and training, as well as tactical, operational, and strategic brilliance, as they are about how much “kit” either side can bring to the fight.

With that in mind, here are just a few more considerations concerning a possible conflict between Russia and NATO in Europe:

  • The US is the most indispensable NATO ally. Other NATO members are often dependent on the US for core capabilities such as C4ISR (Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance). The US military has a sizeable presence in Europe, but if American reinforcements were prevented from reaching the continent at a crucial point in time, this could give Russia a window of opportunity.
  • As General Robert H. Barrow once commented, “Amateurs talk about tactics, but professionals study logistics.” A military force can have all the shiny technology in the world, but if it is incapable of conducting the movement, supply, and maintenance of its forces, it will fail in battle. Russian logistics were disastrous in the opening stages of the Russo-Ukrainian War. NATO has fared better in recent operations, but it remains to be seen how the alliance would meet the logistical demands of a full-scale conventional war.
  • Willpower and morale matter. The Kremlin believes Russians have a greater propensity to tolerate the deprivations of war than Westerners and thus a stronger willpower to do what is necessary to win. This raises important questions, such as: would NATO allies act according to Article 5 and defend Baltic members if Russia attacked, and would European NATO members be willing to endure a war with Russia or seek an early diplomatic resolution?

US Government Sues Apple for Manipulating Market

Nick Kampouris
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US Government Sues Apple for Manipulating Market
Apple store lawsuit
US Department of Justice filed an antitrust lawsuit against Apple. Credit: Ed-Uthman-MD, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 2.5

In a shocking move, the US Department of Justice (DOJ), backed by a total of 16 US state district attorneys along with the District of Columbia, filed on Thursday an antitrust lawsuit against tech giant Apple.

This unprecedented –for Apple in the US– legal challenge that Apple has to face accuses the popular company of monopolising the smartphone market. This is a move that could potentially have far-reaching implications for the company and consumers as well as the tech industry as a whole.

What is the issue

At the heart of the US lawsuit against Apple is the allegation on behalf of the American government that Apple has been engaged in anti-competitive practices for some time. The US government accuses Apple of trying to maintain its dominance in the smartphone market.

The DOJ also claims that the strategies that Apple has been employing have not only stifled competition in the market but also harmed consumers by limiting their choices significantly and driving up prices. This lawsuit truly represents one of the most significant antitrust actions against a tech company in recent years in America. It is also signalling a new, more robust effort by the US authorities to regulate the power of major mega-tech firms, like Apple.

Key allegations against Apple

The US government lawsuit describes in detail several ways in which Apple is said to have maintained its monopoly in the smartphone market.

Among these, we can find the allegation that Apple has been imposing contractual restrictions as well as fees that limit the functionality of third-party apps on iPhones. Additionally, Apple is being accused of selectively restricting access to critical points of connection between these apps and the operating system of the iPhones, known as iOS.

Such actions, the DOJ argues, degrade the functionality of apps or accessories that are not made by Apple, something that directly impacts consumer choice and innovation in the wider market.

US Department of Justice.
US Department of Justice. Credit: flickr / Salticidae CC BY NC-SA 2.0

Additionally, the complaint against the tech giant highlights the control that the California-based company places over its App Store. Apple is known to be charging up to a 30 per cent commission on sales. This is a practice that has been at the centre of contention with app developers and competitors of the Android market alike. This practice, also known as the “Apple tax”, is seen now by the American authorities as a significant barrier to competition. As a result, developers are being forced to comply with Apple’s stringent rules or face exclusion from its important market.

It is also noted that earlier this month, the European Union fined Apple over €1.8 billion ($1.95 billion) for ”abusing its dominant position on the market for the distribution of music streaming apps to iPhone and iPad users through its App Store.”

Potential impact on consumers

The outcome of this landmark lawsuit could have profound implications for consumers in the near future. If the DOJ’s efforts are successful, we might see a more increased competition in the smartphone market. As with every other market, competition might end up leading to lower prices, more innovation, and greater choice for everyone in the market.

Additionally, it could pave the way for more third-party apps and services to operate more freely and efficiently on iOS. This could potentially finally break down the “walled garden” that Apple has been accused of creating around its ecosystem in the last decade.

As this legal battle unfolds, it will be closely watched by industry observers, competitors, and consumers worldwide.

World’s Oldest Pyramid in Indonesia Study Retracted After “Major Error”

Matthew Norman
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World’s Oldest Pyramid in Indonesia Study Retracted After “Major Error”

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A controversial and highly-criticized study which claimed that humans built a pyramid on Gunung Padang, Indonesia around 25,000 years ago has been retracted from the journal Archaeological Prospection after a “major error” was discovered.

The Gunung Padang Pyramid Study

In November last year, the study drew lots of media attention for its incredible claim that a mountain in Indonesia—Gunung Padang—is actually the world’s oldest pyramid constructed by ancient humans. However, many archaeologists and other experts were highly skeptical of the pyramid study, repudiating its claims.

According to the paper, Indonesia’s Gunung Padang pyramid did not form naturally. Instead, it was “meticulously sculpted” into its present structure between 25,000 and 14,000 years ago. If this thesis were accurate, it would mean Gunung Padang was thousands of years older than the world’s oldest pyramids, and the research team argued that this “suggests that advanced construction practices were already present when agriculture had, perhaps, not yet been invented.”

Several more unusual claims were also made, such as that there are “hidden cavities or chambers” at the site, and that the site itself seemed to have been buried multiple times “possibly to conceal its true identity for preservation purposes.”

Many other archaeologists were unconvinced by the claims of the Gunung Padang study, particularly as they would rewrite the history of the human race. Lutfi Yondri, an archaeologist at BRIN in Bandung, Indonesia, told Nature that his work has almost conclusively proven that people in the area resided in caves between 12,000 and 6,000 years ago, leaving no evidence of possessing the “remarkable masonry capabilities” apparently employed by people of the region thousands of years before them.

Flint Dibble, an archaeologist at Cardiff University, UK, told Nature that the study used “legitimate data” but drew unjustified conclusions about Gunung Padang. For example, the research team used carbon dating, making the claim that “dating of organic soils from the structures uncovered multiple construction stages dating back thousands of years BC, with the initial phase dating to the Palaeolithic era.”

The team claims that soil samples taken from what they deem to be the oldest part of the “construction” date back 27,000 years. This could be true, but more archaeologists highlighted the fact that these soil samples showed no signs, such as bone fragments or charcoal, indicating human activity. This means that really all it is is really old soil.

These accuracy concerns eventually led to an investigation and subsequent retraction by Archaeological Prospection.

The Retraction

“The publisher and the Co-Editors-in-Chief have investigated these concerns and have concluded that the article contains a major error,” the journal explained in a retraction notice. “This error, which was not identified during peer review, is that the radiocarbon dating was applied to soil samples that were not associated with any artifacts or features that could be reliably interpreted as anthropogenic or ‘man-made.’ Therefore, the interpretation that the site is an ancient pyramid built 9,000 or more years ago is incorrect, and the article must be retracted.”

In reaction to the retraction, the authors said the decision was “unjust” and argued it had been “unequivocally established as man-made constructions or archaeological features, rather than natural geological formations,” in a statement posted on Facebook. “These layers are accompanied by numerous small portable artifacts, providing tangible evidence of their anthropogenic origin.”

Did the Dorian Invasion of Greece Actually Happen?

Alexander Gale
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Did the Dorian Invasion of Greece Actually Happen?
hoplites, black figure pottery
Was the hypothesized Dorian invasion the cause of fundamental changes to late Bronze Age society in ancient Greece? Credit: Grant Mitchell / CC BY 2.0 / Wikimedia Commons

The Dorian Invasion is a historical and archaeological hypothesis that suggests a migration or invasion of the ancient Greek mainland by a group of people called the Dorians during the Late Bronze Age or Early Iron Age.

According to this theory, the Dorians, who spoke a Greek dialect, entered Greece from the north and displaced or assimilated the existing population. The date of the supposed invasion itself remains a point of debate, but some scholars place it at around 1100 BC.

The Dorian invasion theory is one of the most widely debated hypotheses in the study of early ancient Greek history. Late Bronze Age Greece and the collapse of Mycenaean civilization remain uncertain territory for scholars of history and archaeology.

The Dorian invasion theory

Proponents of the Dorian Invasion theory argue that this event caused a significant disruption in Bronze Age Greek civilization. They suggest that the Dorians played a role in the downfall of the Mycenaean civilization, leading to a period of decline and cultural regression known as the Greek Dark Ages. They point to evidence such as the destruction of certain palaces and changes in pottery styles to support their claims.

According to the historian Colin McEverely (1930-2005), “about 1200 [BC] the Achaean Greek and Hittite kingdoms were overthrown by the migrating barbarians… The Dorians, the northernmost of the Greek tribes, broke into the peninsula and methodically sacked the Achaean strongholds; they then took the sea and meted out the same treatment in Crete and Rhodes.”

Proponents of the Dorian invasion theory do not necessarily agree on the finer details beyond the broader hypothesis that the introduction of the Doric Greek dialect was due to an external influx of people called the Dorians. For example, one point of disagreement is whether the arrival of the Dorians was a violent invasion or a more peaceful migration.

map of Greek dialtects
Map showing the geographical distribution of ancient Greek dialects after the Dorian invasion supposedly took place. The dialect spoken in the broader Dorian region, excluding Doris itself, was previously believed to be Achaean. From Achaean, the dialects of Arcadocypriot and Aeolic are thought to have originated. However, Doric eventually replaced Achaean in southern Greece. Credit: Fut Perf / Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

Truth behind a legend?

The first scholars to develop the Dorian invasion theory, mostly writing in the 19th century, derived their initial hypothesis from ancient Greek legends and myths. According to Classical Greek tradition, the Dorians took possession of the Peloponnesus during an event known as the Return of the Heracleidae.

According to the legend, the Heracleidae were the descendants of the hero and demi-god Heracles, who upon his death, were exiled from the Peloponnesus. They returned to the region under the leadership of Kresphontes, Temenos, Eurysthenes, and Prokles, who divided it into three regions.

Kresphontes took Messenia, Temenos took the northeast, and the twins Eurysthenes and Prokles took Laconia, becoming the first dual kings of Sparta. This account is recorded in sources such as Herodotus.

Heracles and Prometheus
Heracles, wearing the coat of the Nemean, Lion approaches Prometheus. The Dorian invasion theory was initially derived from an ancient Greek legend about the descendants of Heracles. Credit: Christian Griepenkerl / Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

Opponents of the Dorian invasion theory

The Dorian invasion theory is not without its detractors. In fact, the historian Dr. Owen Rees argues that the consensus among modern historians and archaeologists is that the hypothesis is wrong.

Critics argue that the evidence is insufficient to conclusively prove that a large-scale invasion ever occurred. They propose alternative explanations, such as internal social and economic factors, as the cause of the changes in Greek civilization during that time period.

The English historian and archaeologist Vincent Robin d’Arba Desborough (1914-1978) was highly critical of the theory. He wrote “If [invaders] remained and settled, why have they left no trace? Can one really suppose that they were so primitive as to leave no evidence, whether in some new custom or at the very least in some new artifact? If they moved on, where did they go? If they went back, why did they do so, leaving the good land which they could have occupied.”

Holy Fire in Jerusalem: A Miracle or a Scam?

Tasos Kokkinidis
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Holy Fire in Jerusalem: A Miracle or a Scam?
Holy Fire
Hundreds of faithful gather every year at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre for the tradition of Holy Fire. Credit: Danels97, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0

A Greek journalist is on trial in an Athens court following a lawsuit by the Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which accuses him of fabricating evidence in his attempt to prove that the Holy Fire in Jesus’s tomb does not ignite miraculously but through the use of matches.

Orthodox tradition holds that the Holy Fire happens annually on the day preceding the Orthodox Easter in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Old City of Jerusalem. The blue light is said to have emitted within Jesus’ tomb, rising from the marble slab covering the stone bed believed to be that upon which Jesus’ body is to have been placed for burial.

The Greek State in cooperation with the Greek Orthodox Church arranges an elaborate ceremony each year for the arrival of the Holy Fire to Athens and then to the rest of the country.

Journalist Dimitris Alikakos is the man accused by the Patriarchate of Jerusalem of demeaning the tradition by spreading “fake news.”

Holy Fire ignites by a human hand

Alikakos claims that in his book ‘Redemption – About the Holy Light,’ he has gathered testimonies from people involved in the process of touching the light, such as guardians of the Holy Sepulcher and Patriarchs. These testimonies lead to the conclusion, as some of them admit, that it is not a miracle, but rather the touch is facilitated by human intervention

In his book, he presents an interview with the skeuophylax Archbishop Isidoros of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem, in which the latter admits that the “Sleepless Candle”, which he, himself, puts into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre during the morning of the Holy Saturday, is ignited by him with a lighter.

The former (1984–1988) skeuophylax (chamberlain) Archbishop Nikiforos makes the same acknowledgement, except that he was using matches.

He said he would never accept that the Holy Fire was a miracle. “Miracles happen when God decides, Not when we decide… Such “miracles” are performed by charlatans and magicians, not the Church.

“Our faith cannot be based on scams,” Nikiforos said.

His testimony was recorded in a video by Alikakos:

@allgood331

ΔΙΚΑΣΤΉΡΙΟ ΑΠΟΦΑΣΊΖΕΙ ΑΝ ΤΟ ΆΓΙΟ ΦΏΣ, ΕΊΝΑΙ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΉ ΑΠΆΤΗ ΜΕΤΑ ΑΠΟ ΔΗΜΟΣΙΟΓΡΑΦΙΚΗ ΕΡΕΥΝΑ! #tvgreece #tv #τικτοκgreece #mpesfy #greektv #ελληνικήτηλεόραση #τικτοκgreece #ελλαδα #τικτοκ #mpes #εκκλησια #αγιοφως #λιαγκας

♬ πρωτότυπος ήχος – Allgood

In the same book, Archbishop Gerason Theofanis states that the Holy Fire does not light up miraculously, but naturally, and the Patriarch then blesses it.

He adds: “We deceive the believers letting them believe that it is a miracle. This is unacceptable, and does not reflect well on us”.

According to Theofanis, the fraud of the “miracle” was invented by Catholic crusaders a few centuries ago, and was later continued by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate.

In addition, the Metropolitan Bishop Kornilios of Petras, a surrogate of the Jerusalem Patriarchate in 2001, confirmed an older interview, saying that he also had ignited the candles of the Holy Fire with a natural candle, and he described in full detail what he saw when he entered the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Lastly, in his book, the journalist mentions the chronicle of the deletion of the word “miracle” from the official website of the Patriarchate on 23 June 2018, with the commandment of the Patriarch Theofilos III.

Greek Folk Songs From the 1821 Revolution

Philip Chrysopoulos
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Greek Folk Songs From the 1821 Revolution
Folk Songs of 1821
“Episode from the Greek War of Independence,” Eugene Delacroix, 1856. In the collection of the National Gallery of Greece. Public Domain

Greek folk songs from the 1821 Revolution not only told the stories of brave revolutionaries but also served as historical texts and diffusors of tradition.

Nobel Prize winner Odysseas Elytis once wrote that “no revolution, neither in art nor in life, has more chances to succeed than the one that uses tradition as its base.”

The folk songs of the 1821 Revolution were made in the dens of the revolutionaries, and were created on the spur of the moment in most cases; they were often sung and danced — and, some, unfortunately, were forgotten the next day.

Luckily, the most moving of them remained in our consciousness, not only as documents of the time but also as songs that are sung and danced today, as reminders of the greatest moments in Greek history.

Songs of joy and mourning

The folk songs gave joy and strength to those who listened and rejoiced. The next day, they went out to fight the Ottomans with these songs on their lips.

And so did the ancient Spartans, who would fight after hearing the song that the poet Tyrtaeus wrote especially for them, and that he himself had sung to them the night before a battle.

The songs told stories of battles and brave deeds, of fellow warriors who fell in on the battlefield, of mourning mothers and wives, and of barbaric massacres by the Turks.

They were also songs of faith and devotion to the Orthodox Church, praises of the Panagia (the Virgin Mary) and patron saints, some asking for divine help.

Many of them were not forgotten, though. Today they serve as tiny chapters of a long, rich history, making Greeks feel proud and rejoice in the victory achieved by their ancestors during the War of Independence.

Many of the folk songs were lost over time, tragically. It mustn’t be forgotten that the revolutionaries were mostly farmers and shepherds who did not know how to write.

They were illiterate and even those who could write were often lacking in writing materials, such as pen and paper. But they did not lack in love for Greece and they were determined to kick out the Ottomans from their ancestral land.

Their “writing material” was their tongue — and the rich tradition of the land, and the myths, along with the Panagia and the saints that guided them in the holy cause.

Some warriors, who left one camp and went to another, carried with them not only their rifles but some of the songs they had loved to sing in their previous encampment.

As for the tunes they used, they sang as they pleased, rendering them in the simplest form of measure, even adding and subtracting verses and words at will.

Most of the time, these improvised folk songs did not go beyond the boundaries of each region. Songs sung along the slopes of one mountain, often did not become known in the villages on the mountain across from it.

Each village, mountain, or region had their own heroes and song characters to cry over and mourn, to tell of tricks they played in battles, and relate stories about the family of the warrior.

Folk songs before 1821

In actuality, the Greeks never stopped revolting for a moment against the Ottomans, from the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 onward.

Yet those uprisings were local, small and disorganized; they often had no support and were therefore doomed at birth, in most cases.

Little is known of the pre-1821 Greek War of Independence. Yet, folk songs were the medium that preserved the battles and struggles of the Greeks.

For instance, in 1789 the Ali Pasha aga Yusuf Arapis campaigned with 3,000 Ottoman Turks and Muslim Albanians against the rebelling chieftains of Thessaly and Roumeli.

The revolutionaries led by chieftain Giannakis Kontogiannis fought valliantly, but were outnumbered and were defeated eventually, as we learn in this traditional song:

“What news did you bring me from the chieftains?”
“Bitter news I brought you from the chieftains,
Nikolakis was caught, Konstantis was wounded!”…
“Where are you, Mama, come to me, hold my head,
and tie it tightly, so that I can mourn!
And whom shall I weep for, and whom shall I mourn?”

In 1807 the great revolution of Mount Olympus took place, led by four men in the Lazaios family, or “The Sons of Lazaios (or Lazopoulos),” as Tolias, Christos, Nikos and Kostas were known.

That early revolution was suppressed. The first three remained in Rapsani, while Kostas was held captive by Ali Pasha in Ioannina, as we hear in this old song form the time:

“Three little birds are sitting on Olympus.
One looks to Giannina, the other to Katerini,
the third best mourns and says:
“What evil have we suffered, the poor Lazaios!
Veli-Pasha ruined us, burned our houses,
he took our wives, he took our children!”

In September of 1826, Roumeliotis general Giannis Makrygiannis, along with Giannis Gouras, defended the besieged Acropolis of Athens, which was being attacked by the Ottomans.

Makrygiannis, better known as an historian later on in his life, sang folk songs very well. He was eloquent, and often improvised, making the songs sound like chapters of history.

“The Sun reigned (yes, my Hellene, reigned) and the moon was lost
and the pure Augerinos that goes near Poulia
the four were chatting and chatting secretly.
The Sun turns and tells them, turns and burns them:
“Yesterday when I reigned behind a mountain,
I heard many women crying and men mourning,
for these heroic bodies lying in the plain,
and in pools of blood most are submerged.
For the homeland, they went to Hades, poor souls.”

Folk songs keep history and tradition alive

If it were not for Greece’s folk poetry, many of the most heroic pages of the Greek War of Independence would have been lost.

In 1895, as historian Giannis Vlachogiannis was trying to write a study called “The death of Androutsos,” he discovered that he had trouble collecting material.

It was then he realized that the newly-established Greek state did not keep an archive of documents relating to the War of Independence.

Vlachogiannis then set out on the gargantuan task to search for and save any historical documents about that glorious time for Greece.

In fact, the historian started searching for documents spanning from the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 all the way through the year 1868.

He searched for manuscripts and letters of the revolutionary fighters from their relatives, their friends and their compatriots.

Vlachogiannis found that many such documents had inexplicably been sold — by the kilo — to grocery stores, butcher shops and the like for wrapping food! He bought many of these documents, paying out of his pocket.

From 1888 to 1913 the researcher had managed to collect over 300,000 pages of documents and manuscripts, which he arranged in folders, based on subject and date.

Vlachogiannis also salvaged the “(Revolutionary) Struggle Archive,” which was kept in the National Archives, founded by the first Governor of Greece, Ioannis Kapodistrias.

 

Full Guide to the Acropolis of Athens: Top 10 Monuments to See

Matthew Norman
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Full Guide to the Acropolis of Athens: Top 10 Monuments to See
The Acropolis of Athens at Sunrise
The Acropolis of Athens at Sunrise. Credit: RobW. CC BY 2.0/flickr

The Acropolis of Athens is a massive archaeological site brimming with the spiritual, artistic, and democratic wonders of ancient Greece, but with every turn, one comes across a new monument. So how does one know what is actually worth visiting?

Thought to be inhabited as far back as 5,000 BC, the Acropolis and its monuments largely remain in suitable condition to this day. In the eighth century BC, the people of Athens dedicated the hill to the goddess of wisdom and military victory, Athena.

Through the ages, as Athens blossomed from a mere settlement village to a large powerhouse in the region, Pericles, who ruled during the golden age of Athens (450 – 400 BC), sought to promote the Acropolis as an exhibition of Athenian pride.

Under Pericles’ leadership, the Acropolis grew from a handful of temples, damaged by the Persians in 479 BC, to a beacon of Classical architecture and symbol of greatness.

Top Monuments to See at the Acropolis of Athens

Archaeological ruins at the Acropolis include temples, statues, sanctuaries, altars, theaters, and even fountains. If you visit, it’s well worth taking the time to appreciate some of the more remarkable sites.

1. The Parthenon

The Parthenon of Acropolis in Athens Greece
The Parthenon of Acropolis. Credit: Flickr / Sam Valadi CC BY 2.0 DEED

The champion of the Acropolis must surely be the Parthenon, which, according to Andrew Stewart’s book One Hundred Greek Sculptors, Their Careers and Extant Works, was designed under the direction of Pericles in the fifth century BC by the ancient architects Phidias, Iktinos, and Callicrates.

The mighty structure lies on the highest ground of the Acropolis and served a dual purpose. Firstly, it was built to house the great statue of Athena, commissioned by Pericles and designed by Phidias and his team of sculptors. Secondly, it was to act as a treasury. The Parthenon was built in the vicinity of at least three earlier temples dedicated to Athena.

The Parthenon is comprised of eight fluted Doric columns at either end, with seventeen on each side. A great amount of the frieze—which depicted the Panathenaic Procession—within the temple, was damaged during a gunpowder explosion in 1687. The Turks had used the Parthenon to store ammunition, and when the Venetians launched a mortar at it, part of the structure crumbled.

Prior to this, the Christians had defaced a number of the pieces of the frieze, but the largest existing part is made up of the Parthenon Marbles, which were taken by Lord Elgin and are now on display in the British Museum.

2. Erechtheion

Erechtheion of the Acropolis of Athens
The Erechtheion of the Acropolis of Athens. Credit: George Rex. CC BY 2.0/flickr

This complex building on the Acropolis of Athens was designed by the ancient Greek architect Mnesikles and built in the last twenty years of the fifth century BC. According to the Acropolis Museum, the structure replaced the Archaios Neos, or ancient temple of Athena Polias, which was partly destroyed by the Persians sixty years prior.

The new temple was divided into two chambers, an eastern room dedicated to Athena which housed the goddess’s wooden cult statue, and a lower western room which accommodated shrines of Poseidon-Erechtheus, Hephaistos, and Boutes, the brother of Erechtheus.

It is generally understood that the temple’s strange shape is the result of its architect’s desire to accommodate all of these cults within one building, while also making the structure adaptable to the uneven surface it sits on.

3. Temple of Athena Nike

Temple of Athena Nike
Temple of Athena Nike. Credit: Tilemahos Efthimiadis. CC BY 2.0/flickr

This marvelous monument on the Acropolis, designed by one of the architects behind the Parthenon, Callicrates, was constructed between 426 and 421 BC on the southwestern edge of the great hill. It is the earliest fully Ionic temple on the Acropolis.

The small temple had a frieze etched into it with a relief of various themes along each side. On the east, there was a gathering of gods around Zeus sitting on his throne, while the other sides displayed war scenes between Greeks and Persians as well as between various Greek groups.

The south side of the temple depicted the great battle of Marathon in 490 BC, when the Greeks, led by the Athenians, became victorious against the Persians. The temple is dedicated to the goddesses Athena, who represented both victory and war, and Nike, the goddess of victory.

4. Propylaea

the Propylaia, entrance gate of the Acropolis of Athens, Greece
The Propylaia of Acropolis. Credit: Alex-David Baldi / Flickr CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 DEED

In ancient Greek architecture, a propylaeon (singular form) is a monumental gate that usually leads to a temple or religious complex. In this case, Pericles had the gates commissioned as the entrance to the Acropolis.

These propylaea were designed to be wide enough to allow chariots to pass through, and the construction was part of Pericles’ rebuilding program for Athens after the Greco-Persian Wars.

Construction of this great entranceway began once the Parthenon was nearly completed. It was supervised by the Athenian architect Mnesicles, and, although work was halted due to the Peloponnesian War, the central parts of the architect’s work were nevertheless completed.

5. Odeon of Herodes Atticus

Odeon of Herodes Atticus
Odeon of Herodes Atticus. Credit: skynet. CC BY-2.0/flickr

Located on the southern slopes of the Acropolis, this amphitheater was built in 161 AD by its namesake in memory of his Roman wife, Aspasia Annia Regilla. It was utilized as a venue for music concerts. With a capacity of around five thousand, it remained intact until its demise by the early Germanic Heruli in 267 AD.

In more recent times, the audience stands and stage have been restored using Pentelic marble. Since then, the site has been the primary venue of the Athens Festival. In 1957, Maria Callas performed at the Odeon during the festival. Moreover, that same year, Edith Hamilton was pronounced an honorary citizen of Athens there at ninety years of age. Frank Sinatra has also played at the venue.

6. Theatre of Dionysus

Theatre of Dionysus, one of the monuments of the Acropolis
Theatre of Dionysus. Credit: nrares. CC BY-2.0/flickr

This ancient Greek theater is thought to be the prototype for others that followed. It is located on the southern side of the Acropolis and has the honor of being the place where all Classical Greek plays were first performed.

Construction at the site began with the orchestra, the circular stone base of around sixty feet in diameter. There is a raised altar in the middle. Used for dramatic plays that were part of the annual spring festival of Dionysus, it was positioned next to temples of nature and the fertility god Dionysus.

During the fifth century BC, the theater was used for theatrical contests during which the plays of Sophocles, Euripides, Aeschylus, and Aristophanes were first performed.

7. Stoa of Eumenes

The Stoa of Eumenes
The Stoa of Eumenes. Credit: George E. Koronaios. CC by 1.0/Wikimedia Commons/George E. Koronaios

The path from the stage of the Theatre of Dionysus leads uphill and westward to the top of the long Stoa of Eumenes. This is a colonnade donated to Athens by Eumenes II, king of Pergamum from 197 to 159 BC, as a shelter and promenade for audiences of the theater.

The Roman architect Vitruvius referenced the structure in speaking about the purpose of stoas. These were constructed near theaters and served as shelter for audiences during inclement weather. Alternatively, they housed theater props.

The level of the stoa floor in ancient times has, by now, been restored. Several of the monument’s pillars on the ground floor remain on the Acropolis.

8. The Caryatids (Porch of the Maidens)

Replica caryatids, south porch, the Erechtheion
Replica caryatids, south porch, the Erechtheion, one of the monuments of the Acropolis. Credit: profzucker. CC BY-2.0/flickr

This presentation of statues, also know as the Porch of the Caryatids, comprises the west end of the south side of the Erechtheion temple. The large caryatid statues now visible on the Acropolis site are reconstructions. Most of the original pieces are on display in the Acropolis Museum.

The gap in the museum’s display is for the ‘missing sister,’ the original having been removed by Lord Elgin and put on display in the British Museum in London, where it has remained since 1817.

A Caryatid is a sculpted female figure that serves as an architectural support, replacing a column or pillar and supporting an entablature on her head. The Greek term Karyatides literally means “maidens of Karyai”, an ancient town on the Peloponnese. Karyai had a temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis in her aspect of Artemis Karyatis. As Karyatis, Artemis, rejoiced in the dances of the nut-tree village of Karyai, those Karyatides who, in their ecstatic round-dance, carried baskets of live reeds on their heads as if they were dancing plants.

9. Beulé Gate

Beule Gate to propylaia
Beulé Gate to Propylaia. Credit: ukdamian. CC BY-2.0/flickr

This is a fortified gate built during the Roman period, leading to the Propylaea monument of the Acropolis. It was constructed mostly from repurposed materials from the Choragic Monument of Nikias, a structure built in the fourth century BC and demolished around six hundred years later. The inscription from Nikia’s monument is still visible on the upper part of the Beulé Gate.

10. Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus

Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus
Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus. Credit: josema. CC BY 2.0/flickr

The Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus was a columned, open-air sanctuary, as per the name, on the Acropolis. It was dedicated to Zeus Polieus, the city protector, around the year 500 BC. Located to the east of the Erechtheion, none of its foundations have been recovered. Its many entrances and ground plan were worked out from rock cuttings on the Acropolis.

The eastern range of the sanctuary is believed to have housed the oxen for the annual Buphonia or ox-sacrificing.

Pausanias described the sanctuary in the second century AD: “There are statues of Zeus, one made by Leokhares and one called Polieus. Upon the altar of Zeus Polieus, they place barley mixed with wheat and leave it unguarded. The ox, which they keep already prepared for sacrifice, goes to the altar and partakes of the grain.”

“One of the priests they call the ox-slayer,” explained Pausanias, “who kills the ox and then, casting aside the axe here according to the ritual runs away. The others bring the axe to trial, as though they know not the man who did the deed.”

 

Greece to Ink Deal for 7 Fire-fighting Aircraft at Mitsotakis Visit to Canada

Tasos Kokkinidis
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Greece to Ink Deal for 7 Fire-fighting Aircraft at Mitsotakis Visit to Canada
Mitsotakis Canada Fire-fighting aircraft
Canadairs will help Greece deal with wildfires. Credit: AMNA

Greece is expected to finalize a deal for the purchase of 7 fire-fighting aircraft from Canada early next week during the official visit of PM Kyriakos Mitsotakis to Montréal, and Toronto.

Canada’s PM Justin Trudeau, announced that Mitsotakis, will visit on March 24 and 25, 2024. “As NATO Allies and steadfast partners, the visit will be an opportunity to deepen the friendship between Canada and Greece,” he said in a statement.

During the visit, Trudeau and Mitsotakis will advance co-operation in shared interests, including trade and investment, climate action, and creating good, middle-class jobs. The leaders will also explore ways to tackle regional and global challenges, like supporting Ukraine in its fight against Russia’s unprovoked war, defending the rules-based international order, and promoting democracy around the world.

Mitsotakis’ visit will build on the close relationship between Canada and Greece, built on common values and the close ties between our people, Trudeau said.

“Canada and Greece are partners, Allies, and friends. When we work together, we create good jobs, grow trade and investment, take climate action, and protect democracies. I look forward to welcoming Prime Minister Mitsotakis to Canada and advancing our work to make life better for Canadians and Greeks alike.”

This will be Mitsotakis’ first official visit to Canada since his election as Prime Minister of Greece in 2019. An estimated 270,000 Canadians are of Greek descent.

Mitsotakis to seal deal for Canada’s fire-fighting aircraft

During the visit, Mitsotakis is scheduled to finalize a deal to purchase seven DHC-515 Firefighters, the newest water bombers built by De Havilland.

The planes are used in several European countries, including France and Italy, where they are universally known as Canadairs, after the company that originally developed the amphibious tankers in the late 1960s.

Five of the seven planes in the Greek fleet would be purchased by the Greek government. The other two would be purchased by the European Union for its civil protection arm, known as rescEU. The last two will be based in Greece, but will fly, as a priority, to other countries to assist in wildfire emergencies.

The cost for the purchase of the firefighting planes is estimated at €360 million.

Mitsotakis’s official visit will be the first to Canada by a Greek prime minister in 41 years.

“The delay was inexplicable, given the strong ties between Greece and Canada,” he said in an interview to the Globe and Mail. “I had made it a priority to officially visit Canada…to engage with the Greek-Canadian community and to talk about the economic aspect of our co-operation.”

Mitsotakis will meet his Canadian counterpart and fellow son of a Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau in Montreal on Sunday. Then the two leaders will attend the city’s Greek Independence Day parade and an evening event sponsored by the Greek community.

This Is the Oldest Known Cycladic Sculpture of Ancient Greece

Tasos Kokkinidis
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This Is the Oldest Known Cycladic Sculpture of Ancient Greece
Oldest Known Cycladic Sculpture
The figure dates from about 5000 to 4000 BCE. Credit: Konstantinos Stampoulis, CC BY-SA 3.0 gr/Wikipedia

The Fat Lady of Saliagos (also known as The Naked Lady of Saliagos) is the oldest known Cycladic sculpture.

It is a marble figure from the Aegean Neolithic period discovered on the tiny islet of Saliagos between the Greek islands of Paros and Antiparos.

The figure dates from about 5000 to 4000 BC and is the oldest known Cycladic sculpture. The figure is missing its head and left shoulder.

It was found during the excavations of Saliagos in the 1960s and it currently resides in the Archaeological Museum of Paros.

The oldest known Cycladic sculpture and her home on Saliagos

Just 500 meters to the north of Antiparos lies Saliagos, an islet of inestimable historical value and natural beauty.

The islet has a length of 100 metres (from north to south) and a width of 50 metres (east to west). During the Neolithic Period, the level of the sea was at least six metres lower than today, and Saliagos was a peninsula on the isthmus that linked Antiparos to its bigger brother Paros.

oldest Cycladic sculpture
Credit: Google Maps

Known to history lovers the world over owing to the archaeological findings made there, this islet was home to the oldest known settlement in the Cyclades, some 5,300 years ago.

According to archaeologists, humankind started settling in the Cycladic islands at the beginning of the Late Neolithic Period, on the islet of Saliagos, which lies 500 metres from  Antiparos.

The settlement of Saliagos, traces of which were first located in 1961 by Nikolaos Zafeiropoulos, superintendent of antiquities, and brought to light by British archaeologists John Evans and Colin Renfrew in 1964, covers the entire islet and dates to at least the end of the 5th millennium BC approximately.

It was composed of rectangular dwellings with stone foundations, which were surrounded by a wall. The task of constructing a defensive wall demands a coordinated collective effort, a fact that proves that in the Cyclades they had already begun the process that would lead later—during the Early Bronze Age—to the foundation of cities.

The inhabitants of the settlement constructed their tools and arrowheads from obsidian. It seems, in fact, that the processing of obsidian took place to a much greater extent than that which local needs could account for; this indicates that the settlement of Saliagos constituted a centre for the processing of and trade in obsidian from Milos.

Its inhabitants were also involved in fishing, livestock-raising, the cultivation of cereals, pottery-making and basket-weaving.

Spoons made out of mussels, several hoes and tools made out of bones, vases and figurines have also been found on the islet.

Most of the vases unearthed in Saliagos resemble fruit bowls. They are made of dark clay and have a white linear decoration, are open, with an outline that is straight, curved or angled, and have a flat base or, more often, a tall support.

No sites of the so-called ‘Saliagos Civilization’ have survived. Very few facts are known about both the society and the religious convictions of these people, as well as about their origin.

Greece Receives US-Made Romeo MH-60R Seahawk Helicopters

Tasos Kokkinidis
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Greece Receives US-Made Romeo MH-60R Seahawk Helicopters
Greece Seahawk Helicopters
“Greece even stronger,” Defense Minister Nikos Dendias wrote in a post on the delivery of the helicopters. Credit: Twitter/Nikos Dendias/Minister of Defense

On Wednesday, Greece received three new US-made Romeo MH-60R Seahawk helicopters that will be joining the Hellenic Navy.

The ceremony took place at the Kotroni Air Base near Marathon in East Attica, where Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis made a brief address, emphasizing the dangers Greece faces from Turkey despite improving relations.

“Despite the calmness that currently prevails in the Aegean, we must not forget that our neighbors to the east are also accelerating their own armaments program,” the PM said. “Approaches are always imperative, but under no circumstances are illusions allowed.”

“And we all [need] to be courteous but not naive, staying focused in the direction of peace, international law and cooperation,” Mitsotakis said.

“Greece even stronger,” Defense Minister Nikos Dendias wrote in a post on the delivery of the helicopters.

Greece will acquire seven helicopters from the transnational program co-signed with the United States.

It placed separate orders for MH-60R aircraft—four in July 2020 and three in April 2021—as a Foreign Military Sales purchase with the US government. After delivery of the first three, the remaining four will arrive in 2025, the manufacturer,  Lockheed Martin, said.

It is the seventh country to receive the US Navy MH-60R naval helicopter. In Europe, Denmark operates 9 MH-60Rs. In 2023, Spain and Norway ordered 14 MH-60R helicopters.

Greece strengthens defense with Seahawk helicopters

The MH-60R Seahawks are the most renowned means of naval operations in both anti-submarine and surface warfare. Their sophisticated detection, strike, and countermeasures systems offer unique capabilities in modern maritime warfare.

It is a twin turboshaft engine, multi-mission United States Navy helicopter based on the United States Army UH-60 Black Hawk and a member of the Sikorsky S-70 family. The most significant modifications are the folding main rotor blades and a hinged tail to reduce its footprint aboard ships.

It is deployed aboard aircraft carriers, amphibious assault ships, Maritime Sealift Command ships, and fast combat support ships. Its missions include vertical replenishment, medical evacuation, combat search and rescue, anti-surface warfare, maritime interdiction, close air support, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, and special warfare support.

The arrival of the helicopters to Greece follows the recent decision by the US State Department to approve the sale of up to forty F-35 fighter jets and respective equipment to Greece in an $8.6 billion deal.

“This proposed sale will support the foreign policy goals and national security of the United States by improving the air capabilities and interoperability of a NATO Ally that is a force for political and economic stability in Europe,” the State Department commented in its respective announcement.

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