172 Greek monks of the Holy Monastery of Panagia Eikosifoinissa were killed by the Ottomans. Credit: Nikolaos Karampetakis Wikipedia CC BY-SA 4.0
All 172 Greek monks of the Holy Monastery of Panagia Eikosifoinissa at Pangaion were massacred by the Ottomans, reveals the study of recovered 16th century manuscripts.
The manuscripts are part of the whole monastery library that was stolen in 1917 by Bulgarian soldiers during World War I and ended up in the United States. The library included over 430 manuscripts and 470 objects.
In their pages, the rich history of the monastery is revealed, confirming the oral testimonies that existed until today about a series of events that marked the monastery during its long and turbulent history, according to an Athens Macedonian News Agency (AMNA) report.
Among them, there is confirmation of an oral testimony about a 16th century massacre, when the Ottoman conquerors slaughtered all the monks in the monastery.
Hand-Written Gospel
Previous to the manuscripts, a 9th century Codex 1424 – a rare Greek manuscript of the complete New Testament – was returned to its rightful owners.
In December 2016, His Eminence Archbishop Demetrios, Geron of America, returned a rare ninth century Greek manuscript of the complete New Testament known as Codex 1424, to its rightful owners: the Holy Metropolis of Drama and its Hierarch, His Eminence Metropolitan Pavlos of Drama.; and the Holy Monastery of Panagia Eikosifoinissa from which the manuscript had been stolen.
The priceless codex was returned by the Lutheran School of Theology in Chicago. The manuscript includes miniatures and depictions of the Evangelists, is written in two columns with twenty-seven lines per column. The columns together measure 18.1 cm by 14 cm (7.13 inches by 5.5 inches).
The vellum gospel somehow ended up at the Museum of the Bible in Washington, D.C., which recently notified the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew that it had been one of the objects stolen during World War I.
Bartholomew, the Metropolis said, allowed the museum, which receives one million visitors a year, to exhibit the manuscript until very recently.
More Manuscripts Returned
In October 2023, the Metropolitan of Laodicea, Theodoritos, as the representative of the Ecumenical Patriarch in Athens, handed over to the Metropolitan of Drama three stolen manuscripts of the holy monastery of Eikosifoinissa dating to the 16th century.
The Archdiocese of America mediated so that the above manuscripts came into legal possession of the Ecumenical Patriarchate from the collection of the Swann Auction Galleries of New York.
The manuscripts were sold to a Chicago collector in 2018, who however returned them when he found their ownership to be legally and ethically questionable.
The manuscripts remained for years in the particular auction house and after it was established that they were stolen from the Monastery of Panagia Eikosifoinissa, it was decided to deliver them to the Ecumenical Patriarchate, so that they could be returned to the rightful owner.
The Great Secret the Manuscripts Hid
In one of these manuscripts marked X 8, a note and text was found related to the massacre of the Greek monks of Eikosifoinissa by the Ottomans in the year 1507.
Drama Metropolitan Dorotheos told AMNA that the oral testimonies spoke about the particular manuscript in which it was recorded that 172 monks were slain by the Ottomans. However, with the discovery of the paper manuscript, “we have all the names of the slaughtered monks, who met a tragic death on August 25, 1507 and who are now commemorated in the monastery services.”
The handwritten note states: “In 1507, a great and terrible tragedy fell upon the holy monastery when they cut down the monks and sacked the monastery as well, in the month of August (25).”
Under the heading “These are the monks”, there is a list of the slaughtered monks and others. In the margin of sheet 31 there is confirmation of the continuity of the list of slain monks and the designation: “The unjustly killed”.
It should be noted that the total number of the massacre victims was 202, of which there were 24 priests, 3 deacons, 145 monks and 30 pilgrims.
A new study from the University of Ottawa shakes up our understanding of the universe. Published in The Astrophysical Journal, the study challenges what we thought we knew about the universe’s makeup.
The existing idea says it’s made of normal matter, dark energy, and dark matter. However, this new study says there might not be any dark matter at all.
In cosmology, “dark matter” refers to stuff that doesn’t seem to interact with light or electromagnetic fields.
We can’t see it, and we don’t know what it’s made of, but it helps us figure out how galaxies, planets, and stars move and behave because of its gravitational pull, according to Phys.org.
Existing beliefs say that the universe is 27% of dark matter
Rajendra Gupta, a physics professor at the Faculty of Science, came to this conclusion by using a model that blends two theories: covarying coupling constants (CCC) and “tired light” (TL).
The CCC+TL model combines ideas about how natural forces change over time in the cosmos and how light loses energy during long travels.
This model has been put to the test and has been found to align with various observations, like the distribution of galaxies and the evolution of light from the early universe.
This new finding challenges our current understanding of the universe. The prevailing idea says about 27% of the universe is made of dark matter, with less than 5% being ordinary matter, and the rest is dark energy.
The universe doesn’t need dark matter to exist
Gupta explains that the earlier research on the age of the universe, titled ‘JWST early universe observations and ΛCDM cosmology,’ showed it to be 26.7 billion years old. This new study confirms that the universe doesn’t need dark matter to exist.
He added that in typical cosmology, the universe’s accelerated expansion is attributed to dark energy. However, it’s actually because the natural forces weaken as the universe expands, not because of dark energy.
‘Redshifts’ occur when light shifts towards the redder end of the spectrum. The researcher looked into recent studies regarding how galaxies are dispersed at low redshifts and examined older literature concerning the size of the sound horizon at higher redshifts.
“There are several papers that question the existence of dark matter, but mine is the first one, to my knowledge, that eliminates its cosmological existence while being consistent with key cosmological observations that we have had time to confirm,” says Gupta.
The new study questions dark matter’s role, offers a new model, and sparks exploration into the universe’s fundamental properties, according to Phys.org.
Red clay from the drowned island found off Brazil. Credit: Scientific Reports / CC BY 4.0
Scientists from Brazil and Britain were investigating the ocean floor near a volcanic plateau called the Rio Grande Rise. As they observed footage from their remotely operated submersible 650 meters (2,100 feet) below, they noticed some unusual rocks.
These rocks had layers of red clay, something not commonly found on the seabed. Bramley Murton, a marine geologist from the National Oceanographic Centre in Southampton, U.K., who was part of the team, described the deposits as resembling soils found in tropical regions.
A recent study conducted by the team revealed that the unique minerals present in the clay could have only been created through weathering in tropical conditions. This discovery adds to a series of findings suggesting that this particular area of the ocean, located 1,200 kilometers (750 miles) from Brazil’s coast, may have been an island in the past.
“Imagine a lush tropical island slipping beneath the waves and lying frozen in time. That’s what we’ve uncovered,” said Murton, the study’s co-author.
He and his colleagues believe that this island would have been approximately the size of Iceland, which is about a fifth of the total area of the Rio Grande Rise.
Rio Grande Rise goes back to 80 million years
The Rio Grande Rise has a history dating back 80 million years. At that time, a massive mantle plume existed beneath the mid-ocean ridge of the South Atlantic, leading to a period of intense volcanic activity.
Murton explains that initially, the rise resembled a Cretaceous version of Iceland and was situated closer to the mid-ocean ridge than its current location near South America. Over time, as volcanic activity decreased, the plateau slowly drifted westward across the Atlantic Ocean and eventually submerged beneath the waves.
Around 40 million years ago, the mantle plume experienced a final burst of volcanic activity, but this time, it was confined to the western part of the rise.
It was in this specific area that the researchers discovered the red clays, which were sandwiched between lavas known to be approximately 45 million years old, as reported by Live Science.
Underwater ancient beach terraces and drowned waterfalls
The research represents the outcome of two scientific expeditions conducted in 2018 to explore the Rio Grande Rise.
The first expedition aboard the Brazilian research vessel Alpha Crucis focused on mapping the underwater terrain of the rise using sonar technology. Initially, the project aimed to study mineral-rich ferromanganese crusts found on the rise’s seafloor.
During the mapping process, the researchers made several significant discoveries. They identified a steep-sided canyon called the Cruzeiro do Sul Rift, which stretches for 30 kilometers (about 20 miles) and divides the rise.
Additionally, they found evidence of ancient beach terraces, wave-cut platforms, and submerged waterfalls.
An AI depiction of a table with Greek delicacies. Credit: Midjourney for the Greek Reporter
As the vibrant parades of the Greek Carnival, or “Apokries,” flood the streets of the nation, this festive season brings with it a storm of culinary traditions that are as colorful and rich as the celebrations themselves.
Apokries marks the period leading up to Lent in the Orthodox Christian calendar. It is a time of joy, dance, and, most importantly, feasting. This article takes a look at the delicious delights that define this important period for Greek society. Let’s dive into the traditional foods that bring families together and honor centuries-old customs.
The Essence of Greek Apokries
Apokries is more than just a prelude to Lent. It’s a celebration deeply rooted in Greece’s cultural and historical ground. Stemming from ancient festivities honoring Dionysus, the god of wine, festivity, and pleasure, Apokries has evolved to become a cherished Greek tradition like no other. During this time, Greeks engage in numerous customs.
These include masquerading, parading, and making festive banquets. This is a way to bid farewell to meat consumption before the forty days of strict fasting begin. The essence of Apokries lies in its ability to blend solemn religious observance with community joy and indulgence to the extreme.
The Traditional Greek Food of Apokries
Meat Dishes: The last Thursday before Lent, known as “Tsiknopempti” or Smoky Thursday, sees households and tavernas in Greece grilling and roasting meats. This tradition fills the air with tantalizing aromas across the country. Dishes such as beef, lamb, pork, and chicken are central to the celebrations, symbolizing abundance and the final days of meat consumption before the fast. One can enjoy the traditional Greek souvlaki (meat skewers), burgers, sausages, and ribs in all forms of dishes.
Dairy Delights: Dairy products also play a significant role during Apokries, especially in dishes like the traditional and well-known tyropita (cheese pie). Additionally, many make creamy desserts, which are savored before the dairy-free days of Lent. Among these are the popular rizogalo (rice pudding) and galatopita (custard cream pie), to name a few.
Sweets and Pastries: The Carnival season is incomplete without the sweet treats that traditionally adorn Greek tables. From the world-renowed baklava all the way to galaktoboureko, kataifi, and tulumpa, they all offer a sweet finale to the pre-Lenten feasts. These culinary delights, like other syrupy pastries, combine the flavors of nuts, honey, dough, and filo pastry in every bite.
Must-Try Food of Greek Apokries
Among the myriad of dishes that define Apokries, a few stand out for their cultural significance and flavors. Tsiknopempti, Greece’s version of the famous Mardi-Gras, brings a feast of grilled meats, a tradition that gathers friends and family around the fire. Tyropita, spanakopita, kolokythopita, and kreatopita, with their flaky pastry and rich fillings of feta cheese, spinach, pumpkin, and meat respectively, are beloved snacks throughout the Carnival period. Lastly, no celebration is complete without delicious Greek loukoumades, honey-soaked dough balls that offer quite literally a taste of heaven on earth.
Celebrating Apokries Today
In contemporary Greece, Apokries remains a time of limitless indulgence and festivity. From busy Athens and Patras to the smallest villages of Macedonia and Epirus, Greeks uphold the tradition of gathering around the table to enjoy the season’s culinary offerings.
Public festivals feature food stalls that serve traditional Apokries dishes, bringing the community together in a shared celebration of heritage and gastronomy. As families pass down recipes and customs, the spirit of Apokries continues to thrive, ensuring that the Carnival’s culinary traditions remain a vibrant part of Greek culture.
AI depiction of a painting of Euclid, studying a sunny evening in ancient Greece. Credit: DALLE via Perplexity for Greek Reporter
For centuries, Greece dominated the Mediterranean in both cultural and political terms. However, it was eventually surpassed by Rome. Nonetheless, Greece did not disappear into obscurity in the Roman Empire. It continued to be a major player on the world scene. What do we know about Greece in the Roman Empire?
Reorganization of Greece by the Romans
Upon conquering Greece in the second century BCE, principally with the victory over Corinth in 146 BCE, Rome was able to establish the province of Macedonia, covering northern Greece. The cities of the Peloponnese were also subject to Rome’s rule, although not all to the same degree as in the province of Macedonia.
For some time, a few of the southern Greek cities were allowed to remain autonomous, free from the direct rule of Rome. Examples include Sparta and Athens. Most of the other cities, however, had to send tribute to the Romans.
Later, in 27 BCE, Augustus Caesar become the first emperor of the Roman Empire. In this same year, he reorganized Roman rule over Greece. He reorganized it into two provinces, Macedonia and Achaia. The territory of the former covered much of northern Greece, as before. Achaia, meanwhile, covered the Peloponnese and a portion of mainland Greece.
A long time after this, the Romans divided Greece into additional provinces, such as Epirus along the western coast. There was also the province of Thrace in the northeast.
How Roman rule negatively impacted Greece
In many respects, being part of the Roman Empire had a very negative impact on Greece. Needless to say, it experienced major political decline, having lost its power and freedom to engage in conquests of other areas.
Another area that experienced decline was economically. While being in the Roman Empire, the Greek cities were not independently able to exact tribute on other territories as they had done while they were self-governing.
The Greeks themselves were not ignorant of the political and economic decline that their country was experiencing. During this period of dominance by Rome, the Greeks developed a tendency of looking towards their past and dwelling on their own history. Evidently, they considered their golden age to have been a thing of the past in many respects.
Thriving Greek culture
However, being in the Roman Empire was not entirely bad for Greece. In fact, although Greece experienced political and economic decline, the culture of the Greeks thrived. The main reason for this is that the Romans were enamoured by it. We see this, for instance, in the way that they readily identified their gods with the gods of the Greeks.
The Romans were so fascinated by Greek religion that they even dismantled entire Greek temples and reassembled them in their homeland in Italy.
Furthermore, the Romans greatly admired Greek artwork, architecture, philosophies and even political ideas. For intellectuals, the Greeks were the subject of considerable admiration. Certain Greek cities were still considered centers of learning. One example is Athens, which had one of the most prominent and prestigious schools within the Roman Empire.
This is clearly evident in the Christian Scriptures in the Bible, in which we find accounts of the early disciples of Jesus preaching their message. While experiencing some political opposition from Rome, these accounts show that intellectual or philosophical opposition always came from either Jewish sources or Greek ones, but never Roman.
The language of Greece throughout the Roman Empire
Another way in which Greece continued to thrive under the Roman Empire is that its language remained dominant. Alexander the Great had spread the Greek language all over the Eastern Mediterranean during his conquests in the fourth century BCE.
Even after the Roman Empire emerged, Greek did not fall out of use. Rather, it remained the lingua franca of the day. That is why, famously, the Gospels and other first-century Christian works were written in Greek, not Latin.
It was common to consider those who adopted the Greek language and culture to be ‘Greeks’ in a sense. This being the case, the Roman Empire was absolutely full of Greeks. Again, the first-century Christian Scriptures give us insight into this matter. The Apostle Paul, for example, used ‘Greeks’ to represent all non-Jewish people.
The fact that he used this term instead of ‘Romans’ is fascinating. It shows that the Greeks were still the most prominent among the nations of the Roman Empire, by virtue of the widespread adoption of the Greek language and culture.
Antony and Cleopatra (1883) by Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicts Antony’s meeting with Cleopatra in 41 BC. Public Domain
Cleopatra, the Greek Queen of Ancient Egypt, and Marc Antony, the famous Roman general, conducted part of their decadent love affair on the Greek island of Samos in the summer of 32 B.C.
At the time, Samos was regarded as Mykonos is today. It was a cosmopolitan island which the rich and famous from all over the known world, especially Rome, wanted to visit and be seen in.
Unlike the arid climate you typically see on Greek islands, Samos had, and still has, ample greenery, with picturesque mountain villages, pine forests, and even flamingos.
During the Roman period, Samos was quite prosperous as a part of the Roman Empire’s “Province of Asia”. In 189 B.C., it became part of the Kingdom of Pergamos with the approval of the Romans. Later on, it belonged to the “Province of the Islands” along with other Aegean islands.
Pirates attacked Samos many times in the Roman Era, but the island managed to survive and retain its glory.
Antony and Cleopatra, immortalized in a tragedy by William Shakespeare, during their stormy relationship, headed for a romantic tryst on Samos.
In her latest book, published in 2022, American historian, Adrienne Mayor gives a brilliant fictionalized account of their stay.
Samos becomes the setting of Cleopatra and Antony’s love affair
Rich, famous, and powerful globe-trotters, such as Cleopatra and Antony, cruised the Aegean in 40 to 30 B.C. In April of 32 B.C. the pair sailed from Ephesus to Samos, bringing with them a retinue of popular actors, comedians, and musicians.
Adrienne Mayor continues:
For three weeks their revels were the talk of Greece: the island resounded with the sounds of pipes and lutes; there were sumptuous drunken banquets and all-night performances.
Cleopatra’s souvenirs from Samos included life-size bronze statues of Zeus, Athena, and Heracles taken from the Temple of Hera. She also took home scores of paintings and thousands of books.
Antony bought Greek costumes for himself. Cleopatra was hoping to persuade Antony to get a divorce from his wife in Rome. But he was preoccupied with the upcoming showdown with Octavian (future emperor Augustus) in the Adriatic.
The couple sailed from Samos to Athens, alternately bickering and making up all the way.
The tempestuous affair continued in Athens, where the city raised statues to both lovers on the Acropolis and hailed Cleopatra as the Goddess of Love and Antony as Dionysos.
There were more riotous drinking bouts, torchlight parades, and outrageous behavior. Antony dressed up in a Dionysos costume. Cleopatra bought tablets of onyx and crystal, had them inscribed with love letters, and sent them to Antony. Antony caused a scandal by caressing her feet in public.
The lovers moved their celebrations to the city of Patras, but by September of 30 B.C. the party was over. They both committed suicide after their fleet was defeated by Octavian at Actium in the Gulf of Preveza.
Cleopatra, the ruler of Egypt, was Greek
Marble bust of Cleopatra made between 30 and 40 BC in the collection of the Vatican Museums. The “melon” hairstyle can be seen here as well as the diadem. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
The ethnic background of Cleopatra, the famed queen of Ancient Egypt, has been a persistent topic of conversation for years. Despite the fact that she ruled over Egypt, Cleopatra was Greek.
Cleopatra VII Philopater ruled over Ancient Egypt from 51 to 30 BC, and was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. After her death, the Roman Empire took control of the country.
The Ptolemaic Dynasty was formed by Ptolemy I Soter, a Greek general in Alexander the Great’s army, in 305 BC. Although located in Egypt, the dynasty that Ptolemy established remained incredibly Greek.
Cleopatra, a direct descendant of Ptolemy, was the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language, as all those before her solely spoke Greek. She was also believed to have spoken Ethiopian, Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, Syriac, Median, Parthian, and Latin.
The name Cleopatra comes from the Ancient Greek words κλέος (kléos), meaning “glory,” and πατήρ (pater), meaning “father,” which means “glory of her father.”
Palace of Aigai, part of the Kingdom of Macedonia. Credit: Greek Reporter
During a speech at a conference in Thessaloniki titled ‘Greece Talks_Thessaloniki: Thessaloniki on the international tourist map’, Angeliki Kottaridis, Curator of Antiquities of Imathia, told audience members that visitor numbers to the Palace of Aigai – the Kingdom of Macedonia – had this year begun to match those of the Acropolis Museum.
The conference took place at the Thessaloniki Concert Hall yesterday (Thursday, March 14), where the well-known curator, referring to the archaeological site of Aigai, said, “In 2022, recovering from the coronavirus, in Aigai we had 163,255 visitors and since then, in 2024, crazy things have started to happen. In January we had 12,589 visitors and in February 22,855 visitors. Last Sunday we had 7,800 visitors. We are talking about Acropolis museum numbers. And the most impressive thing is that this is an area without tourism,” she said.
Kottaridis then proceeded to take the audience through a digital presentation showing the great and unique things about the archaeological site and museum in Aigai, the great kingdom of Macedonia.
She said that the site is home to “important, rare finds already from the archaic years. Of course we have the weighty wreaths found in the royal tombs, including Philip himself, the famous gold sun boxes of Vergina. But also an amazing gilded fabric that was saved precisely because it was gold.”
She continued, “Despite the fact that we are not Athens, we have found some amazing examples of painting, original classical works. Here, in the picture, we see the work of Nicodemus, now I can say with confidence that it is his, the Abduction of Persephone and even the amazing scene with the hunt, from the tomb of Philip.”
Adding “In Aigai we have the unique opportunity to see some of the few gold-ivory finds that have been identified in the Greek area. Along with these and some amazing busts, such as that of Philip and Alexander, which essentially constitute the birth of the realistic portrait. Yes, the Parthenon is amazing but it is an idealistic work. Here we are dealing with the birth of realistic depiction.”
The History of Aigai, The Kingdom of Macedonia
The palace of Philip II it is considered the largest building of classical Greece, while the palace complex occupies nearly 15,000 square meters. Credit: Greek Reporter
Kottaridis also spoke about the cultural and historical significance that the Macedonian kingdom held for the rest of the world, highlighting the real-life, historical value of the site.
She said “Often in museums and monuments we need stories. Narratives to enhance the visitor’s interest. But in the Goats we don’t need stories. We are not dealing with myths that we somehow have to make up. We are dealing with real events and real people.”
She also touched on the reign and legacy of Philip II of Macedon, saying that “Within 20 years, Philip manages to unite Greece and become the first ruler of the Greeks. After his death, very early one morning at the end of a long-ago October, right after his father’s murder, Alexander runs with his friends to catch up with the conspirators. He enters the peristyle of the palace first and manages to become king. A year later, and after he has first managed to control all the internal issues in the Greek area, he starts from Aigai and goes to where we all know.”
Julius Caesar assassination in Rome. Credit: Flickr/ Colin Bewes CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
On March 15th, a group of ancient Roman history enthusiasts obtained permission from the city of Rome to reenact one of the most infamous events in Roman history: the assassination of Julius Caesar.
The event took place at the site of Largo di Torre Argentina, a large open space in Rome adorned with four Roman Republican temples and the remnants of Pompey’s Theatre. It was in the Curia of Pompey, situated within this square, where Julius Caesar met his fateful end.
With painstaking attention to detail, they recreated the scene of Caesar’s brutal demise, with twenty-three dagger strikes echoing through the air. As the reenactment unfolded, spectators were transported back in time to witness this pivotal moment.
Following the enactment, the group solemnly carried the “body of the assassinated emperor” through the streets of Rome, passing through iconic landmarks such as the Roman Forum and the Altare Della Patria.
They paid homage to the enduring legacy of Caesar and the profound impact his death had on the course of Roman history.
On March 15th 44 B.C., Julius Caesar entered the Senate of Rome and was brutally murdered by twenty-three dagger strikes. His death is commonly understood to be the end of the Roman Republic and to have inaugurated the age of great Roman emperors.
Historians of the time, such as Cicero, were not particularly sympathetic towards him and remember the historical figure of Caesar as being quite authoritative to the extent that Marcus Aurelius vouched for himself to “never become another Caesar.”
Largo di Torre Argentina, Rome, Italy. Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Wknight94 CC B Y 3.0
Caesar as a Politician
Caesar’s great military accomplishments had garnered him great respect in Rome, and the Senate’s politics had become the battleground for internal factions as would future colonies. This was supported by ancient Roman aristocracy.
Based on unresolved tensions between factions, when Caesar advanced past the Rubicon River in 49 B.C., this introduced a new crisis in the ongoing Roman civil war. Caesar’s victory upon Pompeus in Tapsus, Tunisia in February 46 B.C garnered him the title of dictator for ten years. His victory in Munda, Spain the following year put an end to the civil war and consolidated Caesar’s following.
In theory, his opposition defended the Republican ideal. In practice, a handful of families held judiciary power and would divide political roles in the provinces and Rome amongst themselves. Consuls, who wielded the real political power in Rome, held their role for a year and would rotate. The title of dictator was reserved for political emergencies in which the Republic was under attack. In practice, Caesar would be the only figure in Roman history to hold the title.
Julius Caesar claimed his family, the gens Iuliaa, descended from the first kings and Jupiter. This was quite common practice for contemporary Roman aristocracy, but it wasn’t a random choice for Cleopatra to seduce him in particular in order to gain favor in Rome. Much like the emperors that succeeded him, Caesar had begun shaping the urban landscape of Rome, building the Forum of Caesar. In many ways, the civil war was fought militarily with conquests and culturally in the same way emperors would always strive for popular support even during the empire.
But is it true that Caesar was killed because he desired to be king of Rome? Caesar was a controversial figure in Rome during his time, but three episodes in the months leading up to his death sealed his fate.
The Statue of Caesar is Crowned
In January 44 B.C. just three months prior to the death of Caesar, the statue of the dictator in the public square in Rome was mysteriously crowned. Ancient Greek historian Nicolaus of Damascus, who lived during Augustus’ time, described the scene:
On the head of Julius Caesar’s statue at the rosters a diadem appeared. Diadems, a string of wool or silk, had been Alexander the Great[‘s]…symbol for regal power. Romans considered it a symbol of servitude and suspected him. Two tribunes of the plebs appeared, Lucius Cesecius Flavus and Gaius Epidius Marullus, and ordered one of their servants to remove it. As soon as Caesar came to know of this, he called for a meeting at the Senate in the Temple of Concordia (the Roman goddess of unity, a symbolic choice) and accused the tribunes, claiming they had put the diadem in secret to vilify and [dishonor] him, in disregard of the Senate and of him. The event showed a larger plan, since they could accuse him of being power-hungry and to disregard the law, and thus instigate a revolt to kill him. Having said this, Caesar tried to find a common ground with the Senate and exiled them.
The rosters were a spot for popular gathering and for politics in the public arena, and the effect on the population was strong. According to Svetonius, it was Caesar himself who had crowned his own statue and was dismayed the gesture had been received so poorly by the plebeians. Alternatively, he could have been upset because he had been deprived of the glory of refusing it. Since then, Svetonius mentions, “he has never been able to shake the suspicion that he was aspiring to the title of king.
The Temple of Mars Ultor in Rome. Credit: NikonZ7II / CC BY-SA 4.0 / via Wikimedia Commons
“I’m not king, I’m Caesar”
On January 26th of the year 44 B.C., the people acclaimed Julius Caesar as “Rex,” or king. He was returning to Rome from the neighboring countryside during Feriae Latinae. However, Rex was also a name and thus Caesar humorously replied: “I am Caesar, not Rex.” According to Cassius Dio, another Greek historian, it was on that occasion that Caesar dealt with the tribunes. However, Cassius Dio lived much later than Nicolaus of Damascus.
For the purpose of our tale, the episodes occurred quite close together. Caesar showed a lot of political wit in his dealings during the turbulent times of Rome. However, it was not enough to save him. Since that time, Caesar has become synonymous with ‘king,’ as have all the translations into other languages (tzar, Kaiser).
It is possible that these two events had been planned by Caesar to try and gauge popular sentiment in terms of taking on the role of king, but neither had gone well. In the first case, the tribunes’ rapid action led to popular sentiment not even being expressed. In the second case, the aftermath of the first event had led to Caesar having his hands tied. Due to the tense political climate, it is entirely possible that his opponents had been spreading rumors about him.
Caesar Is Offered the Crown
On February 15th of 44 B.C., during the celebration of one of the most important Roman holidays, Lupercalia, Caesar refused the crown. Lupercalia was one of the more solemn and darker of the Roman holidays, with sacrifices being carried out in secret by elected patrician Vestal Virgins. Public celebrations included priests wearing loincloths and waving goatskins in the air as well as hitting women who got close to them to ensure easy conception or childbirth.
During celebrations, people laughed and cheered as the dictator sat in a place of honor. One of the priests made his way through the crowd, and the Lupercus neared the place of honor where Caesar was sitting and held a diadem, intertwined with a crown of laurel. This signified both Eastern regality and Latin accomplishment. Numerous people clapped, though unconvincingly and despite the fact that this was actually not a part of the celebrations. The Lupercus was Mark Anthony, consul and one of the highest positions of power in the Roman state.
Anthony was asking Caesar to put an end to the Republic then and there, and, after some hesitation, Caesar declined. Instead, the republic put an end to him.
Led by Brutus and Cassius, senators stabbed Caesar to death at the Theatre of Pompey during a Senate meeting on the Ides of March of 44 B.C. The unstable and undemocratic institution of the triumvirate, as instituted by Caesar and his future enemy Pompey along with Crassus, eventually paved the way for Augustus to be crowned emperor. The rest remains history.
Thessaloniki had a population of more than 50,000 Jews before World War II — some 46,000 of whom were deported and killed at German Nazi death camps.
Thessaloniki, the “Jerusalem of the Balkans”
Before the deportations started, the Jewish community in the city, which mainly comprised Sephardic Jews whose ancestors had been chased out of Spain in 1492, had flourished to the point where it had earned the nickname “The Jerusalem of the Balkans.”
But then came the horrors of 1943, when virtually all of the town’s Jews were deported — just four percent of them surviving the Nazi death camps to which they had been sent.
To carry out this operation, the Nazi authorities dispatched two specialists in the field, Alois Brunner and Dieter Wisliceny, who arrived on February 6, 1943.
They immediately applied the Nuremberg laws in all their rigor, imposing the display of the yellow badge and drastically restricting the Jews’ freedom of movement.
Registration of the Jews of Thessaloniki by the Nazis, July 1942. Credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-168-0894-21A /CC BY-SA 3.0 de/ Wikipedia Commons
Death trains for Jews waiting in Thessaloniki
Toward the end of February 1943, they were rounded up in three ghettos (Kalamaria, Singrou and Vardar/Agia Paraskevi) and then transferred to a transit camp, called the Baron Hirsch ghetto or camp, which was adjacent to a train station.
There, the death trains were waiting. To accomplish their mission, the SS relied on a Jewish police force created for the occasion, led by Vital Hasson, which was the source of numerous abuses against the rest of the Jews.
The first convoy departed on March 15, 1943. Each train carried from 1,000–4,000 Jews across the whole of central Europe, mainly to the Auschwitz camp.
A convoy also left for Treblinka, and it is possible that deportation to Sobibor took place, since some Salonican Jews were liberated from that camp.
The Jewish population of Thessaloniki was so large that the deportation took several months until it was completed, which occurred on August 7.
The Holocaust of Greek Jews
The Holocaust of the Greek Jews was one of the darkest episodes of the Nazi occupation of the country.
Once part of thriving communities in several Greek cities, approximately 59,000 Greek Jews were victims of the Holocaust — at least 83 percent of the total number living in Greece at the time of World War II and the German Occupation.
How Aristotle Onassis Became the Richest Man in the World. Credit: Greek Reporter illustration. Pieter Jongerhuis/ CC BY-SA 3.0 nl
Aristotle Onassis was one of the most famous Greeks in the entire world in the 20th century, a visionary who became one of the greatest shipping magnates in modern history. His wealth was acquired in a variety of ways, but it was the Suez Canal deal that made him the richest man in the world.
Onassis and his family fled their home in September 1922 when he was only sixteen years old and settled in Greece in the wake of the catastrophe of Smyrna. A year later, he left Athens, choosing to take up residence in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
After enduringall kinds of trials and being forced to live in poverty for years, Onassis didn’t hesitate to dream big. And his dreams were very large indeed.
He created his own brand of cigarettes, and introducing cigarettes with pink tips, aimed at the female market. Having been exposed to the shipping world through his tobacco-importing business, Onassis realized that much more money could be earned if he changed his business model strictly to shipping.
Soon after, he founded his first shipping and trade company, “Astilleros Onassis,” but his quest to acquire his vast fortune had only just begun.
In the early 1950s, Aristotle Onassis worked out a deal with the King of Saudi Arabia to be granted exclusive rights for the shipping of the country’s oil.
After Onassis made the potentially lucrative deal, he purchased a series of tankers for the express purpose of shipping Saudi Arabia’s precious oil.
Due to the country’s massive oil production, Onassis acquired a great number of ships.
This investment turned out to be potentially disastrous, however, when the Greek shipping magnate was blocked from transporting Saudi Arabia’s oil by the US.
US companies, which had a prior agreement with Saudi Arabia for exclusive shipping rights over the country’s oil, were outraged by Onassis’ deal, and the US government even stepped in.
Saudi Arabia Deal Turns Into Disaster
The renewal of charters for Onassis’ ships was refused, and his vessels were not permitted to load any oil when they reached port in Saudi Arabia. Hence, the deal between the Greek shipowner and the country was voided.
The blockade of Onassis’ ship caused his incipient fortune to quickly drain, as his many vessels sat idle in the Red Sea.
Onassis even considered selling the massive fleet of tankers after he realized he could not afford to pay back the loans he had initially received to buy the ships.
His fortunes quickly turned, however, when Egypt cut off all access to the Suez Canal during the Suez Crisis in 1956 after Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip.
The Suez Canal, one of the most important trade routes in the world, remained closed for six months.
Suez Canal Blockage Makes Aristotle Onassis the Richest Man in the World
Aristotle Onassis. Credit: Public Domain
Ships were forced to circumnavigate the entire continent of Africa, a considerably longer trip, and soon there were not enough tankers to fulfill global shipping demands due to delays.
Luckily, Onassis had a massive fleet of ships that had sat unused, the perfect solution to a global need for extra tankers.
Onassis turned what could have been his ruin into a boon. As demand was so high and his ships were not under contract, the Greek magnate had the power to set any price he desired to lease them out, and he made a fortune.
According to records, Onassis could make a two million dollar profit on a single trip with a full tanker at the time.
When the Suez Canal reopened six months later, Onassis had amassed a considerable fortune. In 1957 alone, he made seventy million dollars, equivalent to about $740 million today. Just the year before, he had been drowning in debt.
Onassis made a name for himself as the most powerful and clever shipping magnate on the planet, and he later became the richest man in the world.
