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The Byzantine General Who Challenged the Emperor

Alexander Gale
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The Byzantine General Who Challenged the Emperor
George Maniakes, the Byzantine general who challenged the emperor
Byzantine general George Maniakes who chalenged emperor Michael IV, leads a cavalry charge against the Arabs. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

After the tremendously successful reign of Basil II, the eleventh century signaled a turn of fortunes in a far more negative direction for the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, marked by military defeats and decline.

However, George Maniakes, a Byzantine general, was an exception to the rule during what was otherwise a lackluster period of the Byzantine Empire. Maniakes stood quite literally as a giant on the battlefield owing to his imposing stature, but he was also a supremely capable tactician and commander.

The historian John Julius Norwich described Maniakes as “the glorious, tempestuous, ill-starred” preeminent Byzantine general of his age. Indeed, Maniakes’ life was marked by the highest of highs and the lowest of lows. He was an excellent commander who fought in Anatolia, the Middle, East, Sicily, and Greece. But he was also prone to bouts of fury and was ill-adapted to the intrigues of the Byzantine imperial court.

Character and appearance

According to contemporary sources, Maniakes was an imposing figure both in terms of his stature and the aura of his personality. He was tall and well-built and possessed a disposition prone to anger. The soldiers under his command were keen to follow him and his enemies feared his reputation.

Michael Psellos, a Byzantine monk, historian, scholar, imperial courtier, and music theorist, had seen Maniakes in person and gave an account, writing that “I have seen this man myself, and I wondered at him, for nature had bestowed on him all the attributes of a man destined to command.”

“He stood ten feet high and men who saw him had to look up as if at a hill or the summit of a mountain,” Psellos continues in a rather exaggerated fashion. “There was nothing soft or agreeable about the appearance of Maniakes. As a matter of fact, he was more like a fiery whirlwind, with a voice of thunder and hands strong enough to make walls totter and shake gates of brass. He had the quick movement of a lion and the scowl on his face was terrible to behold.”

From a lowborn to a Byzantine general

Little is known about Maniakes’ early life. His father was called Goudelios and was possibly of Slavic or Armenian origin. However, we can assume that Maniakes was not born into wealth or status based on the start of his career in the Byzantine army as a baggage handler.

Maniakes’ first appearance in the historical records was in 1030. By the age of 33, he had risen through the ranks to become a strategos, a local district commander. At this time he held authority over the provincial fortress of Telouch (modern Duluk), the capital of the thema (military district) of the same name on the Anatolian-Syrian border.

Maniakes came to prominence when a force of about 800 Arab horsemen besieged Telouch. The Arabs arrived falsely proclaiming that the Byzantine Emperor Romanos III Argyros had been killed in battle. The Mirdasid Emirate of Aleppo had indeed defeated Romanos at the Battle of Azaz but the emperor escaped and was very much alive.

Battle of Azaz
The Byzantine cavalry are depicted being routed by the pursuing Arabs at the Battle of Azaz. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

Maniakes and his men were outnumbered and watched as the Arabs paraded trophies they had won at Azaz beneath the walls of Telouch. Maniakes agreed to surrender and sent the enemy wagons of food and wine as a gesture of goodwill.

However, the Byzantine general’s surrender was merely a ploy to goad the Arabs into a false sense of security. Maniakes waited until night had fallen and the enemy had become drunk on all the wine he had sent them before springing his trap. He sallied out from the fortress with his men under the cover of darkness and slaughtered the besieging Arabs.

After this victory, Maniakes sent Romanos blood-stained bags full of the severed ears and noses of the enemy as well as 280 camels laden with booty that had been seized by the Arabs from the Byzantine baggage train at the Battle of Azaz. Romanos immediately promoted Maniakes to katepan (military governor) of the upper Euphrates Valley.

Edessa
The seizure of Edessa in Syria by the Byzantine army and the Arabic counterattack from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

With greater power and resources now at his disposal, Maniakes turned his attention to the city of Edessa which had fallen from Byzantine control four centuries earlier. Maniakes launched a surprise attack at night and seized three of the city’s heavily reinforced towers.

Maniakes’ army was then besieged both by the inhabitants of the city and a large force sent by the Emir, but they were able to hold out until Byzantine reinforcement arrived, winning both the battle and the city.

Military Expedition to Sicily

In 1034, Emperor Michael IV, who had succeeded Romanos, appointed Maniakes as governor of Vaspurakan, a sizeable and significant thema on the Byzantine Empire’s northeastern frontier.

In 1038, Michael then appointed Maniakes as governor of the southern Italy thema and head of the military expedition to recapture Sicily. Sicily had been under Arab control since 965. From here, Arab pirates and raiders constantly harassed the Byzantine territories of Southern Italy. A civil war between the emir of Sicily and his brother provided the Byzantines with an opportunity to wrestle back control of the strategically important island.

The exact composition of Maniakes’ army is uncertain, but the core of his force was made up of Greek heavy cataphract cavalry (kataphractoi) supported by Armenian and Balkan infantry, as well as recruits from Southern Italy.

cataphract
Modern reconstruction of Byzantine /Eastern Roman Cataphract armor. This example is from replicates armor used in the century before Maniakes, but would have been similar nonetheless. The set consists of a lamellar type “Klibanion”, splinted greaves, and vambraces. Credit: Dimitrios Katsikis

The Byzantine general also had a significant number of mercenaries under his command, including 300 Norman knights led by the D’Hauteville brothers, William Iron Arm, and Drogo, and Varangians led by the famous Harald Hardrada, who would later become the king of Norway. Hardrada would also have become the king of England if he had won the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066. There were also Lombard mercenaries from Italy.

The campaign was initially successful. Maniakes captured Messina and Rometta, despite the intervention of 5,000 Arab reinforcements, whom he defeated. From Rometta he advanced on the ancient city of Syracuse. The garrison at Syracuse held out long enough for the emir’s son, Abdallah ibn Muizz, to gather a force at Palermo and attempt to outmaneuver Maniakes, but the general learned of this and was able to set a trap.

The Byzantines surprised their enemy near Troina in the mountains of northeastern Sicily. Few details of the battle are known, but the Greek and Norman cavalry shattered the enemy and Maniakes won yet another victory. The garrison at Syracuse surrendered and the Byzantine army was greeted enthusiastically by the mostly Greek population who celebrated the end of 162 years of Muslim rule.

Byzantines land at Sicily
The Byzantines led by Maniakes land at Sicily and defeat the Arabs. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

The expedition starts to unravel

All that stood between Maniakes and the complete reconquest of Sicily was Palermo. However, events started to take an unfortunate turn for the Byzantine general, and his principal vice – his temper – may have had a lot to do with it.

First, there was a dispute with the mercenaries, who felt that they should have a greater share of the loot. The Normans asked a Greek-speaking Lombard officer named Arduin to appeal on their behalf but Maniakes was enraged and had him stripped and beaten. This led to the Norman and Lombard mercenaries abandoning the expedition and going to Southern Italy, where they joined a rebellion against the Byzantines.

Next, there was the escape of Abdallah, the emir’s son. Maniakes blamed Stephen, the commander of the Byzantine fleet, for his escape, since his ships were supposed to be blockading the coastline. Maniakes’ temper flared again and he physically struck Stephen several times whilst denouncing him for laziness and cowardice.

This proved unwise as Stephen was Michael IV’s brother-in-law. The humiliated naval commander wrote to the emperor that Maniakes was a traitor and the Byzantine general was thrown into prison without trial.

George Maniakes
George Maniakes (center-left) loses his temper with Admiral Stephen (center-right). Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

Return and military expedition to Southern Itlay

A year later, Michael IV died whilst Maniakes was still in prison. Meanwhile, Stephen had been given overall command of the expedition to Sicily. He proved utterly incompetent and all of Maniakes’ hard-won victories were undone. Only Messina held out, as the force there was commanded by a capable general.

At the same time, the Lombard rebellion – aided by the Normans – was spreading across Southern Italy and a succession of Byzantine Katepans failed to quash it. In 1042, Maniakes was released from prison and granted the ranks of Katepan and magister, the highest rank outside of the imperial family. His task was to crush the rebellion.

Maniakes landed in Apulia and proceeded to capture Monopoli, Matera, and Geovinaazo from the Lombard rebels and their Norman allies. However, the campaign was again interrupted by political intrigue before it could be completed.

Byzantine manuscript
Byzantine manuscript depicting scenes from a battle in the 13th century. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

The giant Byzantine general turns against the emperor

The seeds of rebellion were planted by a Byzantine aristocrat called Romanos Skleros who used his position within the imperial court to poison Emperor Constantine IX against Maniakes. Skleros’s sister was the emperor’s mistress, so he held considerable sway over Constantine.

Maniakes and Skleros were not particularly fond of each other. The pair maintained neighboring estates in Anatolia and had apparently feuded over land. According to the historical account of John Skylitzes, Skleros pillaged the villages belonging to Maniakes and “desecrated the marriage bed” with his wife. Whilst Maniakes was busy fighting in Italy, Skelors may have been the one responsible for persuading the emperor that the Byzantine general was plotting a rebellion.

There are at least two accounts as to what happened next. The first is that Constantine IX sent a courtier named Pardus to replace Maniakes as leader of the military expedition. The emperor would offer Maniakes a pardon if he handed over command to Pardus peacefully.

Byzantine reenactors
Reenactors depicting 11th-century Byzantine infantry. Credit: Battlelight / Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

According to this version of events, Parduls was not very tactful in his approach to Maniakes. He publicly accused and approached the general of treachery. Naturally, hurling a tirade of abuse at a veteran warrior famous for his enormous stature and even more enormous rages was not a very wise decision. As Maniakes raised his fist to strike, Pardus appealed to the soldiers in the general’s army to concur that this was a clear sign of his disloyalty. However, the soldiers had fought beside Maniakes through thick and thin and were unimpressed by Pardus. They killed him themselves without Maniakes having to lift a finger.

The other account is a far more personal tale of revenge. In this version of events, it was Romanos Skeloros who was sent to confront Maniakes, either to take charge of the army, as in the case with Pardus, or to confront him in battle. In either case, it did not end well for Skleros. Maniakes tortured his old rival to death by sealing his eyes, mouth, ears, and nose shut with excrement.

Whatever the truth may be, it is known that Maniakes’ troops proclaimed him emperor and he set sail for the Greek mainland to challenge Constantine IX. The emperor again sent an envoy to reach terms but when these were ignored he began to assemble his own army.

Digenes Akritas depicted in the style of a Byzantine icon
A modern depiction of Digenes Akritas depicted in the style of a Byzantine icon by Greek artist Dimitrios Skourtelis. Digenes Akritas was a larger-than-life fictional hero in Byzantine heroic poetry. George Maniakes was the real deal. Credit: Dimitrios Skourtelis / Reddit

Maniakes landed at Dyrrachium and intended to march along the ancient Roman road Via Egnatia to Constantinople via Thessaloniki. Constantine IX selected the eunuch Stephen of Pergamon to lead his army against Maniakes. This was an odd choice given Stephen’s lack of military experience.

The two forces met in battle in the summer of 1043 at the village of Ostrovo (Anissa) near Lake Vegoritida in Northern Greece. Despite being outnumbered, Maniakes seized the initiative and cast the imperial army into disarray with a daring cavalry charge.

At this point, the imperial army was close to breaking and some of Stephen’s troops already began to proclaim Maniakes as emperor. However, the grizzled Byzantine general who had stood as a giant upon the battlefield was struck by ill luck. Maniakes received a mortal wound, either from a lance or an arrow. He attempted to staunch the bleeding but wheeled and fell from his horse. The imperial soldiers rushed to cut off his head and bring it to Stephen.

Anachronistic depiction of a Byzantine imperial coronation by being raised on a shield and crowned. 11th-13th centuries
Anachronistic depiction of a Byzantine imperial coronation by being raised on a shield and crowned. 11th-13th centuries. Credit: Unknown / Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

Although Maniakes had gained the upper hand in the battle, his death caused his army to lose resolve and his men broke and fled. The battle was lost and his captured soldiers were paraded in Constantinople seated backward on donkeys with their heads shaved and the words “shameful refuse” written across their bald patches. The head of Maniakes was placed on a pike and led the procession until it reached the Hippodrome where it was displayed for all to see.

According to Micael Psellos, when Maniakes was defeated, the emperor “with the air of a man who has been delivered from some great wave that was about to overwhelm him… gave thanks to God.”

All that remains is to wonder what would have happened if Maniakes had succeeded in his bid to claim the Byzantine throne. Would his military prowess have led the Byzantines into a new golden age, or would his quick temper and political ineptitude have led to ruin?

Photos and Videos Show Intensity of African Dust in Greece

Matthew Norman
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Photos and Videos Show Intensity of African Dust in Greece
African Dust Storm intensifies in Greece.
African Dust Storm intensifies in Greece. Credit: sjrankin. CC BY 2.0/flickr

An eerie, apocalyptic-like scene has befallen Greece with all-encompassing African dust sweeping across the nation. This was caught on camera plenty of times, and meteorologists have warned the phenomenon will be worsening today and continue into tomorrow afternoon, Wednesday, April 24th.

The high concentrations of dust are evident in Attica, with the atmosphere being almost suffocating over the last few hours. The phenomenon is expected to phase out by tomorrow noon. However, record concentrations have already been recorded on Crete as well as the Peloponnese.

There has been an increase in the number of patients with respiratory problems in hospitals, while pulmonologists are recommending caution and limited movement for vulnerable groups.

The ominous, dust-ridden scene in Greece was also highlighted in a post by the meteorologist Kostas Lagouvardou on Facebook. Lagouvardou uploaded a photo from the Observatory of Penteli accompanied by the words “Our colony on Mars.”

As is visible in photos and videos from Attica, an orange veil encompasses the basin, with the area around the Parliament and Acropolis also covered in African dust.

Photos and videos of African dust encompassing Greece can be seen below:

The situation in Messinia and particularly in the city of Kalamata is reportedly very bad, along with Ilia, at the port of Katakolo, on the beach of Karouta and in the area of Zaharos. Chania is also covered in red fog.

This natural dust phenomenon can have significant effects on the health of those living in Greece, primarily through the degradation of air quality, reports the Hellenic Pulmonology Association (EPE).

The organization highlights that African dust carried particles in a variety of sizes, such as PM10, PM2.5 and even smaller, and can also draw in pollutants from the atmosphere. A rise on certain particulates in the atmosphere can exacerbate respiratory conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, and allergies.

People with pre-existing respiratory conditions are especially vulnerable during periods of increased dust concentrations, which is also reflected in increased hospital admissions. Special attention should be paid to residents of urban centers and areas with already low air quality.

Effect on the respiratory system

One of the main adverse health effects of African dust is its influence over respiratory health. Fine dust particles can penetrate deep into the lungs and in some cases enter the bloodstream.

For those with conditions such as asthma, bronchitis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), exposure to these particles can exacerbate symptoms, resulting in shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing, and chest discomfort.

Some things to do to protect your health include staying informed, limiting outdoor activity, closing windows and doors, using masks, and staying hydrated.

Asthma patients may need to increase the dosage or frequency of their medications.

The Forgotten History of Greece’s Kingdom of Thessalonica

Nick Kampouris
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The Forgotten History of Greece’s Kingdom of Thessalonica
AI depiction of the Kingdom of Thessalonica.
AI depiction of Boniface I, Marquis of Montferrat, the ruler of the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Credit: DALL-E 3 for the Greek Reporter

In the turbulent years following the conquest of Constantinople in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, a number of newly-born Latin and Byzantine Greek states emerged. These states were established to fill the power vacuum left by the shattered and tired Eastern Roman Empire, known today as the Byzantine Empire.

Among these new states was the Kingdom of Thessalonica, a short-lived but significant realm in the broader Greek region that had bold aspirations and goals. The aim of this kingdom was to restore the Byzantine Empire from its base in Northern Greece.

Ruled by Boniface of Montferrat and his successors, the Kingdom of Thessalonica played a very significant role in the politics of 13th-century Greece before its final collapse a few years later.

Origins and establishment of the Kingdom of Thessalonica

The Kingdom of Thessalonica finds its origins in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. In 1204, the Latin Crusaders captured and tragically sacked Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Following this devastating event, the Crusaders divided up the territories of the empire among themselves.

The first state that was created originated from the establishment of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Apart from this creation at the heart of the former empire, the Crusaders also established several other vassal states in the conquered Byzantine lands. One of these was the Kingdom of Thessalonica, founded by Boniface of Montferrat, a prominent leader of the crusade.

Boniface crowned himself King of Thessalonica in 1204 and ruled the kingdom as a vassal state of the broader Latin Empire. The kingdom was centered on the strategically important city of Thessalonica (modern-day Thessaloniki), which had been a major political, economic, and cultural hub in the Byzantine Empire. Thessalonica was known to the Romans as the “symbasileuousa,” meaning “co-reigning” in Greek.

This refers to the status of the city as the second most important settlement of the empire after Constantinople. The title has survived in time with modern-day Thessaloniki known in Greece today as the “symproteuousa,” meaning that it is honorarily the “co-capital” of Greece, second to Athens.

Boniface elected as leader of the Fourth Crusade, Soissons, 1201: history painting by Henri Decaisne, early 1840s, Salles des Croisades, Versailles.
Boniface elected as leader of the Fourth Crusade, Soissons, 1201: History painting by Henri Decaisne, early 1840s, Salles des Croisades, Versailles. Credit: Henri Decaisne, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain

Who was Boniface of Montferrat?

Boniface I, Marquis of Montferrat, was an influential Italian nobleman and one of the leaders of the Fourth Crusade before he was crowned king of Thessalonica.

He was the third son of William V, Marquis of Montferrat, and Judith of Babenberg. After the death of his father in 1191 and his elder brother Conrad in 1192, Boniface became the Marquis of Montferrat.

He had close family ties to the Byzantine Empire and the Crusader states. His brothers William and Conrad both married into the royal family of Jerusalem, while his youngest brother, Renier, married the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor himself, who at the time was Manuel I Komnenos.

In 1201, after the original leader of the Fourth Crusade, Theobald III, Count of Champagne, died, Boniface was chosen to take his place. However, Boniface and the other leaders became embroiled in the politics of the Byzantine Empire rather than focusing on the mission of freeing the Holy Lands. This is how they ended up conquering Constantinople in 1204, establishing the Latin Empire.

Boniface was elected as the first King of Thessalonica. However, his reign was short-lived. In 1207, he was ambushed and killed by the Bulgarians, with his head being sent to Tsar Kaloyan.

Latin Empire, Kingdom of Thessalonica
Map of the Latin Empire and the Kingdom of Thessalonica within it. Credit: Ichthyovenator. Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0

Rulers and territories of the time

The Kingdom of Thessalonica was ruled by the Montferrat dynasty, starting, as we have seen, with Boniface I, who reigned from 1204 to 1207. After Boniface’s tragic death, he was succeeded by his young son, Demetrius.

Demetrius ruled from 1207 to 1224 under the regency of various nobles of the city and beyond. At its greatest extent under Boniface, the Kingdom of Thessalonica controlled vast territories in modern-day Macedonia, Thessaly, and parts of Thrace. The kingdom also held Greece’s second-largest island, Euboea (also spelled “Evia”), with the Duchy of Athens as its vassal state.

However, the kingdom’s borders were constantly shifting due to ongoing local wars and conflicts with its neighbors, particularly the Bulgarians and other Byzantine Greek successor states.

Politics and conflicts of the Kingdom of Thessalonica

As a state that was established by the Crusaders, the Kingdom of Thessalonica was not a fully independent realm with its own distinct presence in the geopolitical reality of the time. It was rather a vassal state of the Latin Empire that was based in Constantinople, which served as the main successor of the dismantled Byzantine Empire.

This meant that the Kingdom of Thessalonica was mostly caught up in the disputes, conflicts, and overall machinations and politics of the Latin Empire itself. The kingdom additionally faced numerous major threats from the Second Bulgarian Empire, which sought to conquer as many Byzantine territories as it could.

Furthermore, the Kingdom of Thessalonica was constantly threatened by the Byzantine Greek successor states such as the Despotate of Epirus and the Empire of Nicaea, which both aimed to restore the Byzantine Empire to its prior state and expel the Catholics from the Byzantine lands.

From 1209 to 1210, Latin Emperor Henry campaigned in Greece to defeat Epirus as well as Bulgaria, significantly supporting Thessalonica’s position. However, in the following years, the Despotate of Epirus under its ruler Theodore Komnenos Doukas steadily conquered territories that belonged to the Kingdom of Thessalonica, seizing much of Thessaly as well as Macedonia from 1215 to 1224.

Decline and fall of the Kingdom of Thessalonica

The death of Boniface I, only three years after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 was a major blow to the Kingdom of Thessalonica, which was left with a child ruler, Demetrius, and a series of regents. This significant political and strategic weakness was exploited by many of the enemies of the kingdom, particularly the Despotate of Epirus.

Under its ambitious ruler, Theodore Komnenos Doukas, Epirus steadily gained Thessalonica’s territories in the late 1210s and early 1220s. In 1224, Theodore captured Thessalonica itself, effectively annexing the kingdom to his Byzantine Greek state. The last king, Demetrius, fled into exile and later ceded his claim to Thessalonica to other rulers.

This important Greek city changed hands several times in the following decades. However, the Kingdom of Thessalonica itself was never revived. The city was eventually recovered by the Byzantine Empire of Nicaea, which went on to recapture Constantinople itself and restore the Byzantine Empire in 1261, 57 years after it capitulated to the Latins. The fall of Thessalonica to Epirus in 1224 officially marked the end of the Kingdom of Thessalonica after just two decades of existence.

The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Thessalonica.
The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Credit: Ichthyovenator, Wikimedia Commons, CC0.

Thus, the Kingdom of Thessalonica was an ambitious but ultimately short-lived attempt to establish a new power in the aftermath of the dismantling of the Byzantine Empire following the Fourth Crusade.

However, caught between the machinations and rival ambitions of the Latin Empire, the Bulgarians, and the Byzantine Greek successor states, Thessalonica struggled to maintain its independence and territories, giving it a more prominent role in history.

The kingdom managed to survive for two decades, but the death of its founder and relentless pressure from its numerous enemies, particularly Epirus, led to its rapid decline and eventual annexation to other formations. Though often overshadowed by larger and longer-lasting states, the Kingdom of Thessalonica does represent a notable chapter in the history of medieval Northern Greece.

Royal Navy Names Submarine after Greek King Agamemnon

Matthew Norman
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Royal Navy Names Submarine after Greek King Agamemnon
Royal Navy names latest nuclear submarine after Greek mythology's King Agamemnon.
Royal Navy names latest nuclear submarine after Greek mythology’s King Agamemnon. Credit: Defence Images. CC BY 2.0/flickr

The Royal Navy’s latest Astute Class submarine built by BAE Systems – due to be launched later this year – has been officially named Agamemnon, after the ancient Greek king.

Agamemnon was officially named at BAE Systems’ Submarines site in Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria, and is the sixth of seven Astute Submarines being built by the company.

She will be commissioned into the Royal Navy after being launched later this year.

The ceremony was attended by the Minister for Defence Procurement and included an address by the vessel’s Lady Sponsor, Lady SJ Sedwill, the wife of former UK National Security Adviser Lord Mark Sedwill.

Agamemnon was then blessed and christened, with a bottle of beer from the local Ulverston Brewing Company smashed against her hull.

“This is a key milestone for Agamemnon and the UK nuclear submarine programme, and contributes to the Government’s Defence Nuclear Enterprise Command Paper, which underpinned the importance of our business and Barrow in delivering this national endeavour,” Steve Timms, Managing Director, BAE Systems’ Submarines business told the UK Defence Journal.

He added, “The Astute Class submarines are a vital component of our nation’s defence capabilities and we are fully focused on completing the remainder of Agamemnon’s programme so she can join her sister submarines in service with the Royal Navy.”
Five Astute Class submarines are in service already, with work also well underway in Barrow on the seventh and final vessel.

“HMS Agamemnon will play a vital role in defence of the nation, providing our Armed Forces with a competitive edge for decades to come. The Astute Class programme continues to support tens of thousands of jobs, with these submarines being a leading example of our commitment to investing in British sovereign capabilities,” said Minister for Defence Procurement, James Cartlidge.

The Astute Class submarines are 97-meters-long and weighs 7,400 tonnes, with advanced nuclear technology which means the vessels never need to be refuelled. They can prodice their own oxygen and fresh water from the ocean and are able to circumnavigate the globe without surfacing.

The Astute Class is fitted with both Tomahawk Land Attack Cruise Missiles (TLAM) and Spearfish heavyweight torpedoes.

According to BAE Systems, “As the home of UK submarine design and build, the UK Government, through the Ministry of Defence are investing with BAE Systems to expand the Barrow shipyard in preparation for an exciting future. In addition to the Astute Class, construction is underway on the first three boats in the Dreadnought Class, which is the next generation of nuclear deterrent submarines that will replace the current Vanguard Class.”

The company added “BAE Systems is also developing the SSN-AUKUS programme, as part of the trilateral security pact between Australia, the UK and America. Under the AUKUS agreement, Australia and the UK will operate a common submarine of the future, incorporating technology from all three nations, based on the UK’s next generation design, which BAE Systems is leading.”

Royal Navy Ships Named After Ancient Greek Figures and Myths

Many Royal Navy ships throughout history have been named after figures and creatures from ancient Greek mythology.

Six ships of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Charybdis, after the sea monster of ancient Greek mythology. The first of these ships was commissioned in 1809; an 18-gun brig-sloop in use until 1819. She apparently became the Whaler Greenwich which made three complete voyages and then wrecked in the Seychelles in 1833 while on her fourth.

HMS Naiad – named after the female spirits, or nymphs of Greek mythology that presided over fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of fresh water – was a Leander-Class frigate of the Royal Navy. HMS Naiad was built by Yarrow Shipbuilders of Scotstoun, and was launched on November 4 1963 and commissioned on March 15 1965.

The Royal Navy also commissioned HMS Hercules, a 20,000-ton dreadnought battleship of the Colossus class, which was built by Palmers at the company’s dockyard at Hebburn in north-eastern England and launched in 1910. Among several other ships of the same name.

As well as the HMS Calliope – named after the muse of epic poetry in ancient Greek mythology.

State Department Report Criticizes Greece’s Record on Human Rights

Tasos Kokkinidis
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State Department Report Criticizes Greece’s Record on Human Rights
US Department of State
The US Department of State on Human Rights says that there is a list of issues on the treatment of migrants, police, and the use of spyware in Greece. Credit: AgnosticPreachersKid / CC BY-SA 3.0 / Wikimedia Commons

There were “no significant changes” in the human rights situation in Greece over the past year, the US State Department said in its annual report which includes, however, a list of issues about the treatment of migrants, police, and the use of spyware.

The report says “significant human rights issues included credible reports of cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment of prison detainees and of migrants and asylum seekers by law enforcement authorities; crimes involving violence targeting members of national, racial, or ethnic minority groups; and crimes involving violence or threats of violence targeting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or intersex persons.”

The Greek government consistently took steps to investigate, prosecute, and punish officials who committed human rights abuses whether in the security forces or elsewhere in the government, the report said.

“There were, however, complaints from nongovernmental organizations and international organizations regarding government failures to effectively investigate allegations of forced returns of asylum seekers and to hold those responsible to account,” it added.

For example, the State Department mentions reports of mistreatment and abuse by police and the Coast Guard, including against members of racial and ethnic minority groups, undocumented migrants, asylum seekers, demonstrators, and Roma.

Furthermore, prison and detention centers remained overcrowded, often with inadequate sanitation or health care, the report said.

Corruption and media in Greece according to the Human Rights report

On corruption, the State Department found that “the most notable cases” involved police. There were 32 convictions either at appeal or first instance levels (24 in 2021) and 15 acquittals (21 in 2021). Imprisonment was suspended in 28 of the 32 conviction cases.

Concerning media plurality, according to the report, domestic and international agencies said journalists and media outlets faced pressure to avoid criticizing the government or reporting scandals.

The report notes that the Council of Europe’s Commissioner for Human Rights, Dunja Mijatović, urged authorities to ensure “human rights defenders and journalists could work safely and freely.”

In May 2023, a report by Reporters Without Borders cited concerns about wiretapping of journalists, allegedly by the intelligence agencies and using the Predator spyware, concentration of media ownership, government control of public media, and violence against journalists, primarily those covering protests and migration.

Furthermore, media freedom watchdogs continued to raise concerns about the use of Greek liber and slander laws to intimidate journalists.

In her March report, the UN special rapporteur on human rights defenders noted journalists faced “criminal lawsuits and strategic lawsuits against public participation for their investigative reporting on corruption and environmental pollution.”

Gender-based violence in Greece

On gender-based violence, a November 14th EU Group of Experts on Action against Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence report revealed that “although Greece had made progress in combating violence against women, serious concerns remained, particularly regarding victim protection, implicit attitudes about gender-based violence among police, prosecutors, and judicial decision-making officials.”

There were also high rates of witness and victim attrition and low conviction rates, particularly in cases of rape.

Greece responds

Responding to the report, the Greek Foreign Ministry appeared to question the findings, stating that the State Department did not seek the view of the government.

“Particularly important for the integrity, reliability and objectivity of the report is the fact that the opinion of the Greek state was not sought about the mentioned issues,” the ministry said in a press release.

“The report lists, without further investigation, complaints by non-governmental organizations that are not independently verified. Precisely because of this indiscriminate recording, it appears that serious human rights issues exist in all countries with a developed rule of law,” it was added.

Shipwreck From the War of Independence Discovered Off Greece

Tasos Kokkinidis
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Shipwreck From the War of Independence Discovered Off Greece
shipwreck Greece
One of the cannons was discovered at the shipwreck in Halkidiki. Credit: AMNA

A shipwreck believed to be connected to the Greek War of Independence in 1821-1829 was discovered recently off the coast of Halkidiki, northern Greece.

In its wooden hull two cannons and a one-and-a-half-meter-long rifle, called kariofili, which Greek revolutionaries widely used, were also discovered.

The shipwreck is about 80 meters from the shore of the village of Furka and at a depth of four meters. The ship’s wooden hull is approximately 25 meters long and eight wide.

Sipwreck Greece
The ship’s wooden hull is estimated to be 25 meters long and eight wide. Credit: AMNA

Two cannons and a rifle are among findings of the shipwreck in Greece

Of great interest were the two cannons found in good condition, 1.65 and 1.86 meters long respectively, as well as the kariofili, which has decorative elements and exceeds one and a half meters in length.

shipwreck Greece
The rifle discovered has decorative elements. Credit: AMNA

The shipwreck was discovered alongside portable materials, bricks, concrete blocks, car tires and even a television screen that local residents said ended up there during the floods of the past few decades.

A modern ladder was also found, which was used in a failed attempt to remove the cannons from the bottom of the sea.

Research on the shipwreck is carried out by archaeologists S. Vrachionidou and A. Tourta.

According to them, the research is at an early stage, but the wreck probably belongs to the revolutionary period and dates back to the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Ship could have played a part in the revolution of 1821

Evidence for the identity of the ship is provided by the findings of the wreck, which include, among others, ropes and sails, clay and metal vessels, a copper pan, a glass bottle with its cork, fragments of porcelain cups, a wooden basket, a broken sack and a bronze inkpot.

The research and study of the material will continue, while underwater excavation will highlight the area and illuminate the role of the wrecked vessel in the not so well known revolution of 1821 in Macedonia.

It is possible that the ship played a role in the Greek Revolution, specifically the revolt in Halkidiki, spearheaded by Emmanuel Papas, who carried food to bolster the revolutionaries.

In 1821, the Greek War of Independence started and the Greeks of Halkidiki revolted under the command of Emmanouel Pappas, a member of Filiki Eteria, and other local fighters.

The revolt was progressing slowly and unsystematically. The insurrection was confined to the peninsulas of Mount Athos and Kassandra. One of the main goals was to restrain and detain the coming of the Ottoman army from Istanbul until the revolution in the south (mainly Peloponnese) became stable.

Finally, the revolt resulted in a decisive Ottoman victory at Kassandra. The survivors, among them Papas, were rescued by the Psarian fleet, which took them mainly to Skiathos, Skopelos and Skyros. The Ottomans proceeded in retaliation and many villages were burnt.

 

Has the Location of Plato’s Grave Been Found in Athens?

Tasos Kokkinidis
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Has the Location of Plato’s Grave Been Found in Athens?
Plato grave Academy Athens
Plato’s statue in Athens. Credit: Edgar Serrano, CC2/Wikipedia

An Italian archaeologist says he has found the exact location of Plato’s grave in the Platonic Academy in Athens after deciphering the Herculaneum papyri.

The Herculaneum papyri are a collection of over 1,800 ancient scrolls discovered in the 18th century. They were unearthed in the Villa of the Papyri, a luxurious Roman estate located in Herculaneum, Italy.

These scrolls are unique because they were buried and preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The intense heat carbonized the papyri, turning them into fragile rolls. While this initially seemed like destruction, it actually protected the scrolls from the elements that normally would have caused them to rot away over time.

Using AI technology, scientists are now attempting to decipher the papyri.

The location of Plato’s burial place was contained in thousands of new words and differently read words in a papyrus on the history of the Academy by Philodemus of Gadara, an Epicurean philosopher and poet who lived in Herculaneum, said University of Pisa expert Graziano Ranocchia.

The scholar made the announcement at the Naples Biblioteca Nazionale (National Library) as he presented the mid-term results of the ‘Greek Schools’ research project conducted with the National Research Council.

Ranocchia said the texts suggested the burial place was in a garden reserved for Plato in a private area in the Academy, near the sacred shrine to the Muses.

Plato's academy Athens
The archaeological site of Plato’s academy. Credit: Tomisti , CC BY-SA 3.0/Wikipedia

Plato’s grave and the Platonic Academy in Athens

Plato’s Academy, or simply, ”The Academy,” was a famous school in ancient Athens founded by Plato in 387 BC, located on the northwestern outskirts of Athens, outside the city walls. The site acquired its name from the legendary hero Academos.

Plato is the one figure who must receive the credit for giving birth to this unique institution. He first acquired the land on which the Academy was eventually built and began holding informal gatherings there to discuss philosophical issues with some of his friends.

The gatherings included thinkers such as Theaetetus of Sunium, Archytas of Tarentum, Leodamas of Thasos, and Neoclides. These meetings and discussions continued for years but it was not until Eudoxus of Cnidos arrived in the mid-380s BC that Akademeia was recognized as a formal Academy.

Plato Grave Academy
The archaeological site of Plato’s academy. Credit: Tomisti , CC BY-SA 3.0/Wikipedia

Plato’s Academy was not an educational institution as we know it in modern times, but because it had the characteristics of a school and covered a wide variety of topics such as philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, politics, physics and more, it is considered to be the first university in the entire world.

plato republic
”The School of Athens” – Fresco by Raphael, depicting the Platonic Academy in Athens. In the center we can see Plato and Aristotle, discussing. The fresco now decorates the rooms now known as the Stanze di Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican Credit: Public Domain

The garden which Plato decided to use for his discussions had also been used previously by many Athenian groups, both civil and religious, with the Akademeia hosting a nighttime torchlight race from altars in Athens to the altar of Prometheus in its gardens.

The road that led to the University was also lined with the gravestones of many Athenians, and funeral games took place there, along with a Dionysian procession from the city of Athens to the site and then back into the city.

The Platonic Academy was destroyed by the Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC.

An exclusive group of intellectuals met in Akademeia, with Plato’s “students” not truly bearing the title of a student apart from their distinction between junior and senior members of the body.

One of them, Aristotle, came to be one of the world’s most influential philosophers of all time.

 

World Spending in Military Reaches Record $2.4 Trillion in 2023

Tasos Kokkinidis
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World Spending in Military Reaches Record $2.4 Trillion in 2023
The Hellenic Navy are planning to upgrade Greece's maritime capabilities.
Greece maintains a defense budget of 3.7 percent of its GDP because of the threat from neighbouring Turkey. Credit: Hellenic Navy

The world spent $2.4 trillion on military forces in 2023, the highest amount ever recorded by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).

SIPRI has been monitoring military expenditures since 1949 and found in its annual report released on Monday that in 2023 they rose to 2.3 percent of the global gross domestic product (GDP) from 2.2 percent the year before.

It meant that every man, woman and child on the planet was taxed an average of $306 for military spending last year – the highest rate since the Cold War.

The increased spending exactly matched the global rate of inflation of 6.8 percent, so it doesn’t necessarily translate into greater military efficacy everywhere.

But as SIPRI said, spending was not evenly spread out because “world military expenditure is highly concentrated among a very small group of states”.

US tops spending in military worldwide

The United States remained the biggest spender at $916bn, representing 37 percent of the world’s military outlays. China came second with an estimated $296bn.

Russia was third at $109bn although SIPRI considers this an underestimation “due to the increasing opaqueness of Russian financial authorities since the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022”.

India came fourth at $83.6bn.

The rate of increase in military spending was also uneven with European budgets ballooning due to the war in Ukraine.

Ukraine increased its defence spending by 51 percent to $64.8bn – not including $35bn in military donations from allies. That meant it was devoting 37 percent of its GDP and nearly 60 percent of all government spending to defence, SIPRI said.

Despite financial aid from Europe, the US and the International Monetary Fund, this was a remarkable feat given that Ukraine lost seven million taxpayers and, according to World Bank figures, a fifth of its economic output in 2022, the first year of the war.

The toll on Russian society was far lower.

Russia increased military spending by 24 percent

Last year, Russia increased military spending by 24 percent to 6.9 percent of its GDP and 16 percent of all government spending. Even though this was the largest defence budget since the Soviet Union was dissolved three decades ago, Russia’s economy also grew by almost 22 percent, thanks to high energy export revenues, lending resilience to its economy.

Russia had already increased its military spending by 9 percent in 2022. The fact that it then budgeted a 21 percent increase in 2023 and actually increased spending by 24 percent suggests that it was continually surprised by the length of the war and the toll of Ukrainian resistance on its armed forces.

Its 2024 budget plans an even bigger increase – 70 percent on defence and security spending – to $157bn, the Reuters news agency reported

Hamas’s attacks on southern Israel on October 7 and Israel’s war in Gaza led to a massive 24 percent defence budget increase in Israel last year to $27.5bn, or 5.3 percent of its GDP.

Saudi Arabia also significantly increased spending.

Related: US Committed to Upgrading Defense Capabilities of Greece

Elafonisos Island: A Little Piece of Greek Heaven

Kerry Kolasa-Sikiaridi
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Elafonisos Island: A Little Piece of Greek Heaven
Elafonisos
Elafonisos. Credit: Public Domain

Visiting Elafonisos in Greece is an unforgettable experience because of the unsurpassed natural beauty this small island has to offer.

Located between the Peloponnese and Kythira, Elafonisos is a small island that is only approximately nineteen square kilometers, or seven square miles, in area. Its beautiful beaches attract as many as 3,000 visitors per day in the summer months.

However, if you are lucky enough to visit it during the autumn or winter, you will no doubt observe that the population takes a dramatic dive—to about 300 to 350 people—during those seasons.

Elafonisos is home to an ancient city

Wondering what to do on this little piece of heaven when you’re not in the mood for a beach day? Well, like many places in Greece, you will find ancient ruins to explore on the island as well as in the surrounding waters.

In fact, there is an ancient sunken city, the archaeological site of Pavlopetri, which dates back as far as the early third century BC, which is thought to have been swallowed up by the sea somewhere around 1000 BC.

Its name, which literally translates to ”Paul’s Stone,” is directly related to St. Peter and St. Paul, the two greatest Christian apostles and martyrs, who traveled far and wide spreading Christianity during the first century AD.

The city’s long history, however, stretches nearly 5,000 years back into antiquity, since the broader region was known to have been inhabited during the earliest years of Greek history.

Discovered in 1967 by Nicholas Flemming, this ancient Greek town is now the oldest underwater “lost city” in the Mediterranean Sea—and one of the oldest such cities anywhere on the globe.

Beaches on the island

Elafonisos, which is at the most southern point of the Peloponnese, boasts pristine snorkeling conditions and quiet stretches of pink-tinged sand which are perfect to explore year-round.

The island’s most famous beach is called Sarakiniko, and it is known for its long stretches of sand and exquisite turquoise waters.

Simos Beach, another popular choice, is located right next to Sarakiniko, and has been labeled one of the most beautiful beaches in the Mediterranean.

Simos Beach is home to the same crystal-clear waters as Sarakiniko. Half of the beach is organized, which means that there are beach bars with chairs and umbrellas for guests to use, while the other half is completely natural.

Other sites on Elafonisos

Another interesting thing to explore while visiting Elafonisos is the main church, Agios Spyridon. This church is built on a tiny, separate piece of land connected by a bridge over the turquoise water.

Worshipers must cross the bridge on foot to worship at the exquisite little church.

As far as dining is concerned, you will find much to delight your taste buds on this little island paradise. You can dine on the freshest possible seafood and enjoy other delectable selections from the local cuisine with a glass of wine while watching the sunset.

In terms of day trips, the island’s proximity to the Peloponnesian peninsula, which is full of ancient sites, stunning beaches, and traditional villages, makes it the perfect place to go when you want a change of surroundings.

During antiquity, Elafonisos was actually connected to the Peloponnese by a small strip of land, making it a peninsula rather than an island.

With all of its tranquility, beauty, and natural splendor, it’s no wonder Elafonisos consistently heads the list of top vacation spots!

Ancient Greeks Invented World’s First Telecommunications Device

Philip Chrysopoulos
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Ancient Greeks Invented World’s First Telecommunications Device
Hydraulic telegraph, 4th century BC invented by ancient Greeks
Hydraulic telegraph, a fourth century BC invention of the ancient Greeks (reconstruction based on descriptions by Aeneas Tacticus and Polybius). Thessaloniki Technology Museum. Credit: Gts-tg/Wikipedia CC BY-SA 4.0

The hydraulic telegraph, invented by the ancient Greeks, had the capacity to send long-distance messages as early as the fourth century BC.

The ingenious apparatus is dubbed as the world’s first telecommunications device. It was designed for military purposes by Aeneas Tacticus with the purpose of more efficiently sending pre-arranged messages across the vast empire of Alexander the Great.

Operation of the hydraulic telegraph is described in detail in Aeneas’ work on sieges, Poliorcetika, which was retrieved by Polybius. The messages sent were along the lines of: “Enemy on sight,” “Cavalry attack,” “We need wheat,” “Infantry in action,” “Cyclical movement,” and so on.

Hydraulic Telegraph Operation

The hydraulic telegraph was used by the ancient Greeks during times of war. There were numerous telecommunication groups of beacons placed on carefully selected hills in ancient Greece. The apparatus was operated by messengers who stood at a given hill and used clay or metal cylindrical containers of equal size filled with water up to three cubits in height and up to one cubit in width.

In each container, there was a cork floating. It was a little narrower than the mouth of the container. Rods, divided into equal parts, were inscribed with the same pre-agreed messages on each and attached to the center of the floats.

The operator-transmitter would lift a burning torch, signaling the operator-receiver for the sending of the message and then waiting for confirmation with the rising of the torch from the receiver. Thereafter, the transmitter lowered his torch so as to signal for the simultaneous opening of both taps on their devices.

The rods with the messages descended, and when the desired message to be sent
appeared at the rim of the transmitter’s device, he raised the torch once again, signaling the receiver for the simultaneous interruption of the outflow.

The ancient Greek hydraulic telegraph was used in times of war for army communication
A relief of the ancient Greek hydraulic telegraph of Aeneas, artist/period unknown. Public Domain

Due to the geometric similarity of the devices, the desired message also appeared on the receiver’s device. It was of utmost importance that there be absolute simultaneity between the transmitter and receiver operators. Both had to be quite careful not to send the wrong message, which would be disastrous in wartime. The description of the hydraulic telegraph was rescued by the historian Polybius in the second century BC.

Advancement in Communication Technology

The technology of the hydraulic telegraph seems rather simple, but its invention was marveled by ancient Greeks as a significant advancement in communication technology, as it allowed for pre-determined messages to be sent across long distances.

In the event of an intrusion or enemy approaching, they would only witness the brief torch flashes and would not be able to intercept the message in any way.

The ingenious hydraulic telegraph shows the pioneering spirit of Ancient Greece
Hydraulic telegraph, fourth century BC (reconstruction based on descriptions by Aeneas Tacticus and Polybius). Thessaloniki Technology Museum. Credit: Gts-tg/Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0

This development was also a great advancement in military communication and strategy. Messages were sent from Sicily to Carthage during the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) using the hydraulic telegraph, also known as a Semaphore line.

Through this noteworthy invention, the military then had the ability to send specific messages that allowed other groups of military personnel, as well as civilians, to better prepare for potential land or sea invasions.

This early form of long-distance communication was especially innovative for its time, and it paved the path for future forms of communications, which have led to the numerous methods currently available.

Today, there is a replica of the hydraulic telegraph of Aeneas Tacticus and pertinent messages from periods of war at the OTE Group Telecommunications Museum in Athens.

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