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Greece’s Meteora and Pindos Designated UNESCO Global Geopark

Meteora
The Meteora Pyli UNESCO Global Geopark is famed for the towering Meteora sandstone columns that reach heights of up to 300 meters. Credit: Harshil Shah CC by 2.0

The Meteora Pyli Geopark was designated part of the UNESCO Global Geoparks network as of Thursday, becoming one of the now 213 Geoparks located in 48 countries in the world.

It was among a group of 18 new geoparks whose addition was announced on Wednesday following a bid submitted by the Thessaly Region, the Natural Environment & Climate Change Agency (N.E.C.C.A.), Trikala Chamber, the Trikala Development Agency (KENAKAP S.A.) and the municipalities of Meteora and Pyli.

Welcoming the news, Meteora Mayor Lefteris Avramopoulos said that it put the region on the global geoparks map and highlighted the role of geoparks in serving local communities, helping in the preservation of their geological heritage and a sustainable approach to growth.

“It is a significant recognition that opens new avenues, strengthening developmental momentum to extend the tourist season in terms of quality and sustainability,” he said, thanking all the agencies involved in this result.

Covering an area of 2,409.5 square kilometers, the Meteora Pyli UNESCO Global Geopark is notable for its unique landscape and natural environment, as well as its rich biodiversity, geological monuments and geodiversity.

Meteora dominates UNESCO Global Geopark

Nestled within the picturesque Thessaly region at the center of mainland Greece, the Meteora Pyli UNESCO Global Geopark is famed for the towering Meteora sandstone columns that reach heights of up to 300 meters.

Perched atop these ‘columns of the sky’ are the iconic Byzantine monasteries, constructed between the 13th and 16th centuries. They are adorned with 16th-century frescoes, which mark a key stage in the development of post-Byzantine painting and offer an insight into the region’s rich religious history and artistic heritage.

Located near the town of Kalabaka at the northwestern edge of the Plain of Thessaly near the Pineios River and Pindus Mountains, Meteora is included on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Emerging about twenty-five million years ago as part of the elevated seabed which was thrust into the sky as the result of massive tectonic movements, the Meteora rocks have created a landscape that looks like something out of a fairy-tale albeit perhaps a scary one.

The beauty of Pindos mountains

Among the other geological wonders of the geopark are the Tafoni formations of Kalambaka, with honeycomb weathering patterns carved into the rock by millennia of erosion.

In the western part of the geopark, the Pindos mountains offer a haven for biodiversity and outdoor enthusiasts with rugged peaks, alpine meadows, lush forests and meandering rivers.

Trekking through the region’s unique terrain, visitors can encounter rare plant species, including the Chalcedonian lily (Lilium chalcedonicum) and the endemic chasmophyte Centaurea kalambakensis which thrive in the area’s distinct microclimates.

The Pindos or Pindus mountain range is roughly 160 km (100 miles) long, with a maximum elevation of 2,637 meters (8652′) (Mount Smolikas).

Because it runs along the border of Thessaly and Epirus, the Pindus range is known colloquially as the spine of Greece. The mountain range stretches from near the Greek-Albanian border in southern Albania, entering the Epirus and Macedonia regions in northern Greece down to the north of the Peloponnese.

Ancient Statue of the God Apollo Uncovered at Philippi, Greece

Apollo statue Philippi
The statue dates back to the 2nd or early 3rd century AD. Credit: Ministry of Culture

Students at the archaeological site of Philippi, northern Greece uncovered a marble head of a statue believed to belong to God Apollo, the Ministry of Culture announced on Thursday.

Archaeologists say the statue dates back to the 2nd or early 3rd century AD and it probably adorned an ancient fountain.

Apollo statue Philippi
Apollo was one of the most important and complex of the Greek gods. Credit: Ministry of Culture

Apollo is one of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology.

He has been recognized as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the Sun and light, poetry, and more.

One of the most important and complex of the Greek gods, he is the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis, the goddess of the hunt. He is considered to be the most beautiful god and is represented as the ideal of the kouros.

Philippi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Philippi
Ancient Philippi seen from the acropolis. Credit: Marsyas, CC BY-SA 3.0/Wikipedia

The ancient city of Philippi was established in 356 BC by the King of Macedon, Philip II, on the site of the Thasian colony of Crenides near the head of the Aegean Sea.

Centuries later, it was abandoned after the Ottoman conquest of the 14th century. The archaeological site was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2016 because of its exceptional Roman architecture, its urban layout as a smaller reflection of Rome itself, and its importance in early Christianity.

The present municipality of Filippoi is located near the ancient city’s ruins and is part of the region of East Macedonia and Thrace in Kavala, Greece.

Theater Philippi
The ancient theatre. Credit: MrPanyGoff , CC BY-SA 3.0/Wikipedia

The ancient city is currently the most vital archeological site in the region. However, the first excavations did not begin until the summer of 1914 and were soon interrupted by World War I.

Between 1920 and 1937, archeologists unearthed the Greek theater, forum, baths, and city walls. Following World War II, Greek archeologists returned to the site, uncovering multiple public buildings.

Statue of Hercules uncovered at Philippi

Recently archaeologists at Philippi uncovered a statue of Hercules. The magnificent statue from approximately the second century AD Roman period adds to the unique architectural style of the premises.

StatuePhilippi
Credit: Ministry of Culture

The statue, whose size is indeed larger than usual, depicts a youthful, nude Hercules while a fragmented club and a lion hanging from the statue’s outstretched left hand attest to the figure’s identity.

A wreath of vine leaves— held together by a ribbon in the back, the ends of which rest on Hercules’ shoulders— further adorns the statue.

Excavations at Ancient Greek City of Amphipolis Yield New Discoveries

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Ruins at the ancient city of Amphipolis, where further new discoveries have been made. Credit Marmontel.
Ruins at the ancient city of Amphipolis, where further new discoveries have been made. Credit: Marmontel. CC BY 2.0/flickr

New discoveries have been made by an archaeological excavation in the Kasta Tomb and the Amphipolis archaeological site, which highlight the strategic character of the city and its significance in notable events of the past.

Speaking to ERT, Dimitria Malamidou, head of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Serres, said that announcements about the new findings are due to be made at the 36th scientific meeting of the “Archaeological Project in Macedonia and Thrace”, being held on March 28 and 29.

She explained that the new discoveries from the Kasta Tomb and the Amphipolis archaeological site would be presented in three parts, the first will detail findings from the ancient market, which has been worked on by professor of classical archaeology at the University of Patras, Dimitris Damascus. The dig uncovered the ancient market, which is now known to have functioned as the economic and administrative center of the city, from the late 5th and 4th centuries.

Kasta Hill Amphipolis, Greece
Kasta Hill in Amphipolis. Credit: Neptuul. CC BY-SA 4.0/Wikimedia Commons

The second announcement focuses on a ceramic kiln found in the north wall, and the third notice will expand on new excavations being planned to try and find the ancient stadium.

History of the City of Amphipolis

Amphipolis was originally a colony of ancient Athenians and was the site of the battle between the Spartans and Athenians in 422 BC. It was later the place where Alexander the Great prepared for campaigns leading to his invasion of Asia in 335 BC. Alexander’s three best admirals, Nearchus, Androsthenes and Laomedon, all lived in Amphipolis.

Following Alexander’s death, his wife Roxana and their son Alexander IV were imprisoned and murdered in 311 BC.

Thucydides claims the name Amphipolis comes from the fact that the Strymon River flows “around the city” on two sides. However, a note in the Suda gives a different explanation apparently put forward by Marsyas, son of Periander, that a large proportion of the population lives “around the city”.

Amphipolis
Credit: Ministry of Culture

But the most probable explanation is the one given by Julius Pollux: that the name indicated the vicinity of an isthmus.

Amphipolis – after concerted efforts – became the main power base of the Athenians in Thrace and, consequently, a target of choice for their Spartan adversaries. In 424 BC, during the Peloponnesian War, the Spartan general Brasidas captured Amphipolis.

Two years later in 422 BC, a new Athenian force under the general Cleon failed once more during the Battle of Amphipolis at which both Kleon and Brasidas lost their lives. Brasidas survived long enough to hear of the defeat of the Athenians and was buried at Amphipolis with impressive pomp. From then on he was regarded as the founder of the city and honoured with yearly games and sacrifices.

On This Day in 1930, Constantinople Was Renamed Istanbul, Both Greek Words

Constantinople or Istanbul
Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (or Istanbul). Credit: Greek Reporter

Built as Byzantium around 657 BC and then renamed Constantinople in the 4th century CE after Constantine the Great made the city his capital, the city of Istanbul officially received its present name on this day in 1930.

Surprisingly, the capital of the Byzantine Empire was not renamed after the Ottomans captured it in 1453. Variations of “Constantinople” continued to be used by the Turkish-speaking conquerors long after they took control of the city.

“It’s a fact that the Ottomans called Istanbul ‘Kostantiniyye,’ among other names, in thousands of their official documents,” said Christoph Herzog, chair of Turkish studies at the University of Bamberg in Germany speaking to Live Science.

Istanbul and Constantinople are both Greek words

People elsewhere in the empire began to use the word “Istanpolin,” which means “to the city” in Turkish (adapted from the Greek phrase “to The City” or “eis tan polin”) to colloquially describe the new seat of Ottoman imperial power. Progressively, Istanpolin became used more, but the official name remained Constantinople.

Throughout the many centuries of its existence, Greeks had referred to Constantinople as simply “Polis” (City). When one was going to the Polis, they would say “Is tin Poli”—a phrase which morphed into the modern term Istanbul.

Following its defeat in World War I, the sultanate of the Ottoman Empire was abolished in 1922, and the Republic of Turkey was born in 1923. Shortly thereafter, in 1930, the Turkish postal service decided some clarification was in order, and it opted to make Istanbul the city’s official name.

Other institutions soon followed suit. That same year, the U.S. State Department and other governments around the world began using Istanbul in their official communications.

Turkish anger at use of Constantinople instead of Istanbul

In 2019, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan declared that still “there are people who want to see Istanbul as Constantinople…this is Istanbul, also known as Islam-bul, this is not Constantinople!”

Turkish footballer Kenan Özer had caused a widespread outcry in Turkey earlier after calling Istanbul Constantinople.

Özer, according to Turkey’s Hurriyet daily, wrote on his personal Instagram account that “The conquest of Constantinople has been completed. Thank God,” referring to a football match in the city.

After receiving hundreds of negative comments from Turkish users of the social media platform, Özer turned his account private, hiding the posting.

For Greeks, Istanbul will always be Constantinople

Greeks never called Constantinople “Istanbul.” This is partly due to the horror they felt knowing that when Constantinople fell to the Ottomans on May 29, 1453, it meant the end of Byzantium, and subsequently, Hellenism in the East. The fall of Constantinople marked the beginning of nearly 400 years of Ottoman occupation.

It is also partly because Greeks naturally feel nostalgic for the splendor that was the Byzantine Empire, which also helped further the spread of Orthodoxy all the way through Russia and today’s Balkan lands.

Another big part of the Greeks’ refusal to accept the name “Istanbul” for their beloved Polis is that since the 1920s, the contemporary Turkish state has been hostile to Hellenism and Greece itself on numerous occasions.

Greeks can never forget the destruction of Smyrna in 1922, the burning of Constantinople’s Greek neighborhoods, the further persecution of Greeks in 1955, or the Turkish invasion and occupation of the northern part of Cyprus in 1974.

Related: Istanbul vs. Constantinople: Why Both Words are Greek

The Female Gladiators of Ancient Rome

Marble relief with female gladiators
Marble relief of paired fighters, Amazonia and Achillea, found at Halicarnassus. Their names, written in ancient Greek, identify them as females.1st-2nd century CE. Credit: Carole Raddato / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 2.0

In Ancient Rome, female fighters were known as “Gladiatrix” and were basically the equivalent of Roman male gladiators. However, instead of fighting other men, they fought other Gladiatrix or even wild animals. These battles took place during special events in arenas and festivals.

It’s important to note that there are no Latin words from the Roman period that specifically referred to the Gladiatrix. The term “Gladiatrix” is more of a recent term used to describe these female fighters. There is limited historical evidence and documented accounts of their existence, according to Heritage Daily.

To the ancient Romans, seeing women gladiators in combat was quite an unusual and novel thing, and they didn’t always view it positively. Oftentimes, they would match a Gladiatrix against opponents of similar skill and strength, creating exciting but sometimes controversial battles in arenas.

Women gladiators in ancient Rome got trained the same way as men

Decimus Junius Juvenalis, an ancient Roman poet, noted that women gladiators trained for combat using the same methods and weapons as men. However, it is essential to also note that there are no records of a ludus, or gladiator school, dedicated to training females in this way.

Juvenalis explained that women from all social classes, whether they were high-class (feminae) or common women (mulieres), engaged in gladiatorial training. However, it’s doubtful that upper-class females would actually step into the arena to fight, mainly because of the social stigma associated with it.

In Roman society, the activities of common women (mulieres) didn’t often draw much attention or concern from the public. Thus, if a common woman chose to appear on stage as a performer (ludi) or participate in the arena, it was, according to Heritage Daily, unlikely to result in significant social criticism or bring shame to her family.

Evidence of arena combats in 2nd century AD

We can find evidence in support of the existence of arena combats by female gladiators of ancient Rome in an inscription at Ostia Antica, which documents the arena games that took place in the 2nd century AD.

The inscription mentions a local magistrate’s involvement in providing “women for the sword,” specifically categorizing them as mulieres rather than feminae, wrote Heritage Daily.

Furthermore, written sources, such as a contemporary account by the historian and chronicler Cassius Dio (AD 155-235), describe a festival held in honor of the Roman Emperor Nero’s Mother.

During this festival, women took part in various activities, including horseback riding, hunting wild animals, and even engaging in gladiatorial combat. Some women participated willingly, while others may have been forced to do so against their own will, according to Cassius Dio.

Archaeologists discovered a lamp with an image of a fallen gladiator as well as other lamps depicting gods related to gladiatorial games. Alongside these discoveries, they also uncovered pinecones, which were typically burned at the arena for purification purposes, reported Heritage Daily.

This finding has led to the suggestion that the deceased individual may have been a Gladiatrix, and in the UK media, she’s been referred to as the “Gladiator Girl.”

Greece Plans Major Overhaul of Air Force and Sale of Older Jets

Greece Air Force
Hellenic Air Force Mirage 2000 taking off. Public Domain

Greece has announced a major overhaul of the Hellenic Air Force (HAF) which essentially involves the decommissioning and sale of F-16 and Mirage 2000 fighter jets.

Greek Defense Minister Nikos Dendias highlighted the need for the Air Force to be streamlined, pointing out that the variety of aircraft types in the current fleet was a burden. The fundamental driver behind the decision to downsize the fighter jet fleet was the exorbitant expense of maintenance.

“We need to make some very radical changes in the weapons systems [operated by the HAF], … everything needs to change,” Dendias said in an interview with Antenna TV recently.

“We have a cartload of different types of aircraft. We have F-4s, Mirage 2000-5s, Block 30 F-16s, Block 50 F-16s, Block 52 F-16s, Viper F-16s and Rafales. We cannot carry on this way,” he said.

Greece’s Air Force streamlined

“The F-4s need to be retired and, if possible, sold. The Mirage 2000-5 is an exceptionally capable plane and can be sold. The Block 30 F-16s need to be sold. And I think we will be able to sell the [Mirage 2000-5 and Block 30 F-16s],” he added, pointing to the enormous cost of maintaining many different types of aircraft as opposed to having compatible fleets.

With the HAF now receiving into service upgraded Lockheed Martin F-16V Fighting Falcon jets and new Dassault Rafales, as well as the Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) it is expected to shortly sign for, the service will have to sell off several older types.

Dendias acknowledged that the initiative to upgrade Greece’s F-16s to Viper level had been delayed, but he insisted that the nation will have an adequate fleet of planes by 2027 at the latest.

Earlier this year, the US State Department authorized a prospective US$8.6 billion sale of F-35 fighter jets and associated equipment to Greece.

According to the Pentagon’s Security Cooperation Agency, this deal could involve the procurement of up to 40 fighters, 42 engines, guidance systems, spare parts, and other ancillary equipment, with assurances that such transactions would not undermine US military readiness or disrupt the regional military balance.

Greece’s jets to Ukraine?

It has been reported that Ukraine would be interested in buying some of the fighter jets Greece will put up for sale. Kyiv has been pleading with NATO countries to arm it with fighter jets like the F-16 and the Mirage-2000s.

US Secretary of State Antony Blinken has asked Greece to send excess weapons to Ukraine following the deal to sell Athens the fifth-generation F-35 jets.

In a letter addressed to Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis, Blinken expressed interest in Greece’s defense capabilities that could be useful to Ukraine, contingent upon Ukraine’s interest and a subsequent assessment of the condition and approximate cost of the proposed assets.

However, despite announcing last year that Greece will train Ukrainian fighter pilots to fly the F-16, the country has remained tight-lipped about transferring fighter jets to Kyiv, unlike its other allies in NATO, like Denmark and the Netherlands, which are poised to deliver their respective F-16s to Ukraine later this year.

Countries like Norway and Belgium could also deliver their jets to Ukraine.

Massive ‘Devil Comet’ Heads Towards Earth During April 8 Eclipse

12P/Pons-Brooks, City-Size Comet Racing Toward Earth
The city-size comet races toward Earth. Credit: Mark Phillips / Flickr / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

According to NASA, a rare and huge comet known as “devil comet’ is expected to travel by Earth for the first time in 71 years and might be seen during the much-awaited total solar eclipse on April 8.

Officially named comet 12P/Pons-Brooks, the cryovolcanic comet is known as the “devil comet” due to its formation of two “horns” made up of ice and gas and periodic explosions.

Comets are made up of dust, frozen gases, ice and rocks bound together following the formation of the solar system, NASA says.

The comet, named 12P/Pons-Brooks (12P), is a 10.5 mile-wide (17 kilometers) ball of ice and rock that circles the sun on a highly elliptical, or stretched, orbit roughly every 71 years and is currently zooming toward our home star.

Devil comet frequently erupts

Like most other comets, 12P has a core of ice, gas and dust surrounded by a frozen shell, or nucleus. The comet’s nucleus is in turn enveloped by a cloud of icy dust, known as a coma, that slowly leaks out of the comet’s interior.

However, unlike most other comets, 12P is cryovolcanic, meaning that it frequently erupts when solar radiation cracks open large fissures in its nucleus, causing it to spray its highly pressurized icy guts, known as cryomagma, into space.

When this happens, its coma is significantly expanded, which temporarily makes it appear much brighter than normal.

12P hit the headlines in July last year, when astronomers watched it blow its top for the first time in 69 years. Since then it has continued to erupt fairly frequently.

During the initial eruptions, the comet’s expanded coma had an irregular shape, caused by a notch in the nucleus that blocked cryomagma outflow. This made the comet look like it had grown demonic horns, which earned the icy object its sinister nickname. However, during more recent eruptions, these horns seem to have disappeared.

As 12P has gotten closer to the sun, its coma — which has a green hue thanks to high levels of dicarbon (two carbon atoms stuck together) — has become much more visible. It has also grown a sizable tail made of dust and ice that is blown away from the coma by solar wind. As a result, astrophotographers are starting to snap much more striking shots of the comet.

Closest approach to Earth on June 2

12P is currently barreling through the inner solar system at speeds of around 40,000 mph (64,500 km/h).

The comet will reach its closest point to the sun on April 24, after which it will slingshot around our home star and be catapulted past Earth on its way back into the outer reaches of our cosmic neighborhood.

It will make its closest approach to Earth on June 2, around which time it should be visible to the naked eye in the night sky.

Related: Comet Last Seen by the Neanderthals Approaches Earth

The Balkan Wars in the Powder Keg of Europe

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Balkan Wars
The entry of Constantine I of Greece with George I of Greece and the Greek army in Thessaloniki. Public Domain

The Balkan Wars in 1912 and 1913 resulted in significant territorial realignments in the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its remaining European territories, including Macedonia, Albania, and parts of Thrace. This reshaping of borders had long-lasting consequences for the political and ethnic landscape of the region.

The combined armies of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success during a series of battles that took place in the Balkan Peninsula.

Issues that led to the Balkan Wars

At the heart of the Balkan Wars were three issues: the disposition of Macedonia, the problem of Crete, and the liberation of the countries still under Ottoman control, especially Albania.

Some Macedonians wanted full unification with Greece. Others wanted a separate Macedonian state or wanted Macedonia to be included in a Serbian or Albanian or Bulgarian state. This issue was appallingly divisive, and the choice often was a matter of life or death. Guerrilla fighters and propagandists entered Macedonia from Greece and all the other countries of the region.

Athens actively supported the irredentist movement in Macedonia with money, materials, and about 2,000 troops. Thessaloniki became more of a Greek city as non-Greek merchants suffered boycotts and left. Greece’s lack of access to this key port heightened tension with the Slavic neighbors.

Under these circumstances, all the Great Powers became more involved in the Macedonian problem in the first decade of the 20th-Century.

Britain pressured Greece to curb guerrilla activities. When the Young Turks took over the government of the Ottoman Empire with a reformist agenda in 1908, a short period of cordial negotiations with the Greeks was chilled by reversion to nationalist, authoritarian rule in Constantinople.

New Ottoman intransigence over Crete and Macedonia combined with Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos‘ demand for complete reunification to raise the prospect of war in 1910.

The Balkan powers initiated the First Balkan War by marshaling more than one million troops and then declaring war on the Turks in October 1912. Venizelos’ military modernization paid rich dividends. Within a matter of weeks, the Greek army took Thessaloniki and besieged Ioannina to the west.

The armies of all three allies fought mainly to gain a favorable position in a postwar settlement. In the May 1913 Treaty of London, the Ottoman Empire ceded all its European possessions to the Balkan allies, with the exception of Thrace and Albania, the latter of which became independent.

Because the Treaty of London made no division of territory among the allies, and because Greece and Serbia had divided Macedonian territory between themselves in a bilateral agreement, Bulgaria attacked both, initiating the Second Balkan War. Greece and Serbia won victories that ensured major territorial gains at the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913.

The addition of southern Epirus, Macedonia, Crete, and some of the Aegean Islands expanded Greece by 68 percent, including some of the richest agricultural land on the peninsula, and the population nearly doubled. The major Greek cities of Ioannina and Thessaloniki were reclaimed.

Although more than three million Greeks remained in Ottoman territory, the Balkan Wars had brought the Megali Idea closer to realization than ever before, before the 1922 disaster in Asia Minor. When King Constantine was crowned following the assassination of King George in Thessaloniki in March 1913, national morale had reached a high point, but it didn’t last into the next decade.

Region remained volatile in the aftermath of the wars

While the Balkan Wars helped to establish some new nation-states, they also created tensions and conflicts between different ethnic and religious groups. The region remained volatile in the aftermath of the wars, leading to further conflicts and geopolitical tensions in the years that followed.

The Balkan Wars are often seen as a precursor to World War I. The conflicts heightened tensions between European powers and contributed to the complex web of alliances and rivalries that eventually erupted into a global conflict in 1914.

The Balkan Wars demonstrated the potential for regional conflicts to escalate into wider European conflagrations.

Serbia President’s Alarming Message of Upcoming Balkan Conflict

Aleksandar Vucic Serbia
“Difficult days are ahead of Serbia,” Vucic said. Credit: NATO

Aleksandar Vucic, the president of Serbia, warned of a potential confrontation on Tuesday by posting a gloomy message on social media about an unidentified threat to his nation.

“Difficult days are ahead of Serbia,” he said in a Facebook post. “At this moment, it is not easy to say what kind of news we have received in the last 48 hours, [but] they directly threaten our vital national interests, both of Serbia and [Republika] Srpska,” he added, referring to the ethnically Serb Republika Srpska.

Vucic says Serbia may fight a difficult challenge

He vaguely alluded to Serbia fighting and winning in a difficult challenge ahead.

“In the coming days, I will introduce the people of Serbia to all the challenges that lie ahead. It will be difficult,” he said. “We will fight. Serbia will win.”

The strange allusion comes months after Serb militants assaulted a town in northern Kosovo, killing four people. The attack, which happened in September of last year, was timed to a “unprecedented” build-up of Serb forces near the Kosovo border, according to the White House at the time.

The episodes had sparked worries that Kosovo, a Balkan nation that proclaimed its independence from Serbia in 2008, and Serbia, which does not recognize it as a separate nation, might like to intensify their confrontation.

Despite Belgrade’s announcement last year that it was withdrawing its forces from the border, Kosovo Prime Minister Albin Kurti recently posted a video on social media that appeared to show Serbian military formations “meters away” from Kosovo’s border.

Kurti declared, “We are keeping a close eye on the situation in case there is any attempt to enter [our] territory.”

Last week, a senior American official warned Serbia against taking any military action.

According to Assistant Secretary Jim O’Brien of the Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, “President Vucic knows well that any use of force against Kosovo would be unacceptable, would be regarded as putting in danger the NATO troops.”

Serbia considers Kosovo to be part of its territory because it holds deep historical and religious importance for Belgrade. It contains many medieval Serbian Orthodox Christian monasteries and is seen as the cradle of Serbian national identity.

Belgrade considers Kosovo an autonomous province

Kosovo declared independence in 2008, but Serbia rejects this declaration and considers it an autonomous province. While over one hundred countries recognize Kosovo as independent, Serbia does not.

Last week, Vucic alluded to the possibility of Serbia withdrawing from the Council of Europe (CoE) if Kosovo gains membership.

In an interview with Prva TV on March 22nd, Vucic expressed Serbia’s discontent with the prospect of Kosovo’s acceptance into the CoE, hinting at severe consequences for the region’s geopolitical landscape.

“You go with that and then we’ll see if Serbia stays in the Council of Europe or not,” Vucic said in an interview.

The CoE, an intergovernmental organization comprising 47 member states, is tasked with upholding human rights, democracy, and the rule of law across Europe.

The Mysterious Lost Civilization of Harappan

 Statue from Moenjodaro
The Harappan civilization, the third oldest in the Ancient East, was located in the Indus River Valley and remains mysterious regarding its way of life and decline. Credit: Smn121 / CC-BY-SA-3.0 / Wikimedia Commons

The mysterious Harappan civilization is considered the third oldest one in the ancient East after Egypt and Mesopotamia. It was located in the Indus River Valley in what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of India and sparked many theories about its lifestyle and decline.

The area where they were situated also gave rise to an alternative name—the Indus Valley Civilization. Researchers believe that it existed in the period from approximately 7000 BC to 600 BC.

The two most famous cities of the Harappan culture, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, are located in modern-day Pakistan. Scientists believe they were very densely populated for the ancient world. According to various estimates, from 23,000 to 50,000 people lived there. In total, the Harappan civilization consisted of about five million people.

Scientists believe that this civilization was quite developed in terms of “long-distance exchange networks, planned urban settlements, sanitation facilities, standardized weights and measures, and a sphere of influence.” Harrapan houses had running water, and the ancient society itself had a writing system.

The decline of the Harappan civilization is estimated to have occurred from around 2000 BC to approximately 1500 BC, with new theories continuously surfacing regarding its disappearance.

Harappan Civilization’s Discovery

The story of the discovery of the Harappan civilization is connected with a British soldier traitor. James Lewis served in the British East India Company but then deserted the company and changed his name to Charles Masson. He began traveling around India and at the same time excavated ancient monuments.

As a result, his activities in 1829 led to the discovery of the ancient city of Harappa. Masson initially believed it was founded by Alexander the Great during his Indian campaigns. However, the discovery turned out to be more mysterious than he thought.

After returning to Britain, Masson published his book Narrative of various journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Panjab. It caused widespread resonance and attracted the attention of historians. One of them, Sir Alexander Cunningham, went to the site of the discovery and began excavations.

However, the first suggestions that Harappa was a previously unknown ancient civilization appeared only at the beginning of the twentieth century. At the same time, archaeologists learned about the nearby site of Mohenjo-Daro and began excavations there. Experts identified similarities between the two cities, coming to the conclusion that they had discovered a new ancient civilization.

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, Largest Cities of Civilization

Archaeological site of Harappa
Archaeological site of Harappa. Credit: Sara jilani / CC-BY-SA-3.0 / Wikimedia Commons

Harappa, spread over an area of 370 acres, had a high level of urban design. In this area, archaeologists found small brick houses and a citadel. The streets were laid out in a grid pattern, demonstrating the highly advanced culture that planned them. However, the architecture was strikingly different from that of the Egyptians or Mesopotamians since there were no remains of temples, palaces, royal statues, or monumental structures in Harappa. Apparently, the largest structures discovered were granaries.

What was particularly stunning is the presence in both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro of sewerage and complex drainage systems. It is believed that these technologies of the Harappan civilization were superior in their development to the Ancient Roman ones. In addition, Mohenjo-daro also had a public bathhouse.

Excavations have shown that smaller settlements were distinguished by early planning. The cites had the same vision which presupposed the presence of a central government that carried out the planning of future cities and investment in construction. UNESCO designated the ruins of Mohenjo-daro as a World Heritage site in 1980.

Crafts and Culture

Studies show that Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro “appear to have become centers for trade and production.” This civilization is best known for its advanced craftsmanship, agricultural expertise, and skillful trading practices. Archaeologists discovered various significant figurines and statues. Among the most notable artifacts is the bronze statuette known as the Dancing Girl, depicting a teenage girl with a confident posture. Some figures, portraying mothers with children or domestic scenes, are believed to have been used as toys.

The most renowned relics from this civilization are small seals crafted from soapstone and engraved with a copper burin. While many seals depict a humpless “unicorn,” a bull in profile, others showcase elephants, bison, rhinoceros, or tigers.

Some seals feature scenes with apparent mythological or religious connotations, although interpreting them remains challenging. These seals were likely utilized as both amulets and practical means to identify goods for long-distance trade, displaying a superior level of craftsmanship and wider distribution as compared to other artistic artifacts.

'Unicorn' seal
Notable relics from this civilization are small soapstone seals, showcasing a humpless “unicorn,” a bull in profile. Credit: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons

Their skillful use of standardized tools, mostly made of flint, copper, and bronze, reflected their ability to create a variety of artifacts, including knives, fishhooks, arrowheads, and bracelets.

Unknown Harappan Civilization’s Language

Even the language spoken by the people of the Harappan civilization is shrouded in unsolved mysteries. Scientists have tried to decipher it, but it remains unknown. This has led to various hypotheses regarding its nature, many of which include the concept of influence from other languages.

The script used in the Harappan inscriptions, consisting of approximately 500 characters, is a complex mystery. There is still no consensus on whether these characters are ideographic, logographic or something else. Various teams made several attempts to decipher it, but no final agreement was reached. Today, it is known that the script was written from right to left. It has been recognized in about 2,000 short inscriptions, varying from single characters to those with approximately twenty characters.

One common theory suggests that the Harappan language may have been related to the Dravidian languages and perhaps even represented a Proto-Dravidian language itself. In support of this theory, a recent research used extensive analysis of archaeological, linguistic, and historical data. It determined that the terms for “elephant” — ‘piri’ and ‘piru’ — in Bronze Age Mesopotamia were borrowed from the Proto-Dravidian word ‘pilu,’ which was prevalent in the Indus Valley Civilization.

Another point of view postulates the idea of a “lost type”, implying that a language has no living continuations, except for the possible influence of a historical substrate, especially in Vedic Sanskrit.

However, there are alternative hypotheses that have received less widespread academic acceptance. One of them includes the idea that it is an Indo-European or Semitic language. Moreover, it is likely that the people of the Harappan civilization spoke multiple languages, just as Sumerian and Akkadian coexisted in ancient Mesopotamia.

Theories Around Harappan Civilization Decline

There are several theories pertaining to the cause of the decline and disappearance of the Harappan civilization, and scientists continue to conduct research to this day.

One theory relates to repeated changes in the course of the Indus River. According to this, changes have affected Mohenjo-daro, forcing residents to look elsewhere for survival due to water shortages. The crucial role of water in agriculture also led to the migration of the Harappans to more fertile regions.

The decline and disappearance of the Harappan civilization is also associated with the appearance of leprosy. This implies an outbreak of plague that resulted in mass migration to rural areas, potentially contributing to the decline of civilization.

However, one of the most common theories has long been about the Aryans. The Vedic literature of India had long been translated and interpreted by Western scholars, leading to the development of the Aryan Invasion Theory. This theory proposed that a light-skinned race, the Aryans from the north, conquered the southern lands, establishing their culture and language.

Skeletal remains discovered in Mohenjo-daro were initially thought to be evidence of a conflict. However, subsequent scholars argued that the skeletons were a result of hasty burials rather than invasion massacres. Furthermore, scientists suggested that the Aryan theory “is based purely on linguistic conjectures which are unsubstantiated.”

Scientists Claimed to Solve Harappan Civilization Disappearance

One of the latest theories regarding the disappearance of the Harappan civilization suggests that climate change played a significant role. Scientists delved into the analysis of sediment cores extracted from the Arabian Sea, scrutinizing its chemical composition and extracting foraminifera, microscopic single-celled organisms found in the ocean.

Their examination revealed a pattern of alternating lighter foraminifera, rich in calcium carbonate, and darker ones, indicating an increased influx of sediment from the land. This alternating pattern served as a marker for climate fluctuations.

Through a comprehensive study of the foraminifera’s chemistry and DNA, researchers were able to reconstruct the ancient climate on Earth. By analyzing isotopes in the sediment, they determined its age, discovering a notable increase in winter moisture concurrent with a decline in summer precipitation. These changes likely prompted the Harappans to consider migrating from the Indus Valley.